Western Stream Research Articles

Comparing “Wandering through a Garden, Waking from a Dream” and “Ulysses” in Consciousness Stream Techniques

. “Ulysses” is one of the representative works of Irish writer James Joyce, and also a masterpiece of the writing technique known as “stream of consciousness,” which has had a significant impact on the world literary arena. “Wandering through a Garden, Waking from a Dream” is a novella created by Taiwanese writer Bai Xianyong which delicately exhibits the entire emotional flow and inner conflicts of the protagonist, Lady Qian, during her attendance at the banquet hosted by Lady Dou through the use of stream of consciousness technique. This paper compares these two classic works from the perspective of stream of consciousness, and analyzes the inspiration and creation of Bai Xianyong’s “Wandering through a Garden, Waking from a Dream” from “Ulysses”. The paper seeks to more profoundly unearth the profound literary value and social significance beneath the unique narrative style of “stream of consciousness” in the former. Based on his proficient mastery of Western stream of consciousness technique, Bai Xianyong fully exerts the creativity of an outstanding writer, forming a distinctive and unique Eastern stream of consciousness writing style rich in Chinese charm.

Introducing the Condor array telescope II – deep imaging observations of the edge-on spiral galaxy NGC 5907 and the NGC 5866 Group: yet another view of the iconic stellar stream

ABSTRACT We used the Condor array telescope to obtain deep imaging observations through the luminance filter of the entirety of the NGC 5866 Group, including a very extended region surrounding the galaxy NGC 5907 and its stellar stream. We find that the stellar stream consists of a single curved structure that stretches 220 kpc from a brighter eastern stream to a fainter western stream that bends to the north and then curls back toward the galaxy. This result runs contrary to a previous claim of a second loop of the stellar stream but is consistent with another previous description of the overall morphology of the stream. We further find that: (1) an extension of the western stream appears to bifurcate near its apex, (2) there is an apparent gap of ≈6 kpc in the western stream due east of the galaxy, (3) contrary to a previous claim, there is no evidence of the remnant of a progenitor galaxy within the eastern stream, although (4) there are many other possible progenitor galaxies, (5) there is another structure that, if it is at the distance of the galaxy, stretches 240 kpc and contains two very large, very low-surface-brightness ‘patches’ of emission, one of which was noted previously and another of which was not. We note the number and variety of stellar streams in the vicinity of NGC 5907 and the apparent gap in the western stream, which may be indicative of a dark sub-halo or satellite in the vicinity of the galaxy.

Distribution of Devensian glacial erratics and related evidence elucidate complex ice flow changes across a former ice divide: Northern England

The Lune Gorge and the uplands of the southern Shap Fells represent a key area in developing an understanding of the dynamics of the Late Devensian glaciation (Dimlington Stadial) of northern England. Here ice masses emanating from southern Scotland, the Lake District and the Howgill Fells interacted in the area of the upper Lune valley. Glacial landforms are recorded and tills noted. The dispersal pattern of Shap granite (Sg) erratics is mapped as these clasts are an important tracer of regional ice movements and local ice dynamics. This new information is synthesised with existing literature to provide an understanding of ice dynamics in an area of complex ice flow history. In particular, the ice flow interactions over an area of the western Pennines and the southern Shap Fells have been defined.Early Dimlington ice flow in the vicinity of the upper Lune valley was easterly. Later a northerly shift in the position of a regionally significant west–east aligned ice divide led to topographic steering of southerly basal ice flows, resulting in the development of a western ice stream (Mint Sg plume) and an eastern ice stream (Lune Sg plume); both flowing south around the massif of the southern Shap Fells. At that time, southerly flow of basal ice over the highest ridges of the Grayrigg massif in the southern Shap Fells was relatively weak. Whereas the western stream extended into the Lancashire lowlands, the eastern ice stream was impeded in the Lune Gorge by ice emanating from Borrowdale which forced northern ice to the eastern side of the Lune Gorge where it was blocked by western flowing Howgill ice; the latter extending as far as just east of Kendal.During the late Dimlington, the ice masses over the Mint valley and the southern Shap Fells largely thinned and retreated to the north and west, with a surge in northerly ice movement within the upper Lune valley that did not override the western Pennines. Local ice dynamics are well-illustrated in the western margin of the Pennines (Crosby Ravensworth Fell Gaythorne Plain), where the disposition of erratics reflects local late west-to-east weak down-wasting ice flow and the presence of subglacial meltwater drainage channels. However, ice ultimately decayed in situ on Crosby Ravensworth Fell Gaythorne Plain. Similarly, after complex variable easterly and southerly ice flow during the early Dimlington, there was weak northerly ice flow in the later phase over Birkbeck Fells Common before ice thinned and retreated from Grayrigg Forest. An extensive ice stream, fed by ice emanating from an ice dispersal centre in the eastern Lake District, occupied the large trough of Borrowdale that transverses the southern Shap Fells, but its extension and recession dynamics remain enigmatic.“Glacial Theory …, in its application to the transport of blocks across Stainmoor, involves such obvious mechanical absurdities that the author considers it totally unworthy of the attention of the Society.” William Hopkins, 1842

Patterns in Fish Assemblage Structure in a Small Western Stream

Knowledge of how patterns in fish assemblages are spatially structured is important for guiding management and conservation actions. However, most studies have taken place in the eastern and midwestern U.S., resulting in a poor understanding of factors influencing western stream fishes. The objectives of this study were to evaluate habitat and species associations of fishes in Deep Creek, a small tributary of the Kootenai River in Idaho. Fishes and habitat were sampled from 58 reaches in Deep Creek. In total, 7,129 individual fishes representing 18 species were sampled. Patterns in species richness were largely a function of channel gradient and associated habitat characteristics. Species richness decreased with increased channel gradient. Species-specific habitat relationships for native and nonnative fishes in Deep Creek provided specific insights into the ecology of each species. Predicted probability of occurrence and relative abundance varied by species and were related to a broad suite of environmental characteristics. This study provides insight on patterns of fish assemblage structure, as well as important information on the ecology of native and nonnative fishes in a western stream system.

Ages and magnitudes of base level fall and valley downcutting in ten tributaries (the Ten Kongduis) of the upper Yellow River, China

Using a morphometric dating method and the S-A (channel slope vs. drainage area) power law relation, the history of tectonic uplift and valley downcutting was investigated in the catchments of the Ten Kongduis (ten ephemeral streams) in Inner Mongolia, China, for the past ca. 5 Ma. These streams drain an area of the northern Ordos Plateau and flow northward into the Hetao Basin where they eventually debouch into the Yellow River. To derive reasonable ages of tectonic perturbation in catchments with obviously different widths between their lower and upper sections, an index was constructed for removing the effect of geometric irregularity on the morphometric ages. The morphometric analysis discloses an episode of tectonic uplift in the study area as early as 2.2–5.8 Ma, an episode or episodes of tectonic uplift after 1.15–0.50 Ma, and an episode of base level fall starting from 0.025–0.036 Ma. In the period of 1.15–0.50 Ma, the eastern stream catchments were uplifted from 0.99–1.15 Ma, a middle stream catchment was uplifted after 0.74 Ma, and a western stream catchment was uplifted after 0.50 Ma. The episode of base level fall after 0.025–0.036 Ma was detected only in some western streams, presumably indicating a recent subsidence episode of the western part of the Hetao Basin. After the episode of tectonic uplift dated to 2.2–5.9 Ma, equilibrium longitudinal profiles were formed in the streams and preserved in the sources of some streams. By comparing the elevations of the projected equilibrium profiles based on their S-A power law relations with the current ones, and considering the valley downcutting of the equilibrium profiles in the past 0.5–1.15 Ma, the largest valley downcutting magnitude upstream of the southernmost fault between the Ordos Plateau and the Hetao Basin in two western and three eastern streams was found to be in the ranges of 142–194 m and 52–145 m, respectively, and the base level fall at the northernmost fault between the plateau and the basin was estimated to be 317 m and 138 m on average for the two western and three eastern streams, respectively.

A Portrait of Ambition: Yu Zhiding’s Thatched Cottage at the Western Stream 志氣寫真: 以禹之鼎的《西溪草堂圖》為例的個案研究

This article introduces Thatched Cottage at the Western Stream, one of the great surviving portraits of the Kangxi-period painter Yu Zhiding (ca. 1647–ca. 1716). Though the sitter’s identity has been lost over time, the painting remains an enlightening case study in the mechanics of Yu’s approach to art, which combined strikingly naturalistic portraiture with a broad knowledge of art history to merge men of his day with paintings of the past. After introducing the role of portraiture within the power dynamics of the Kangxi court, the article presents the story of Yu’s journey from a commoner’s birth near Yangzhou to the heights of power in Beijing. It then turns to a detailed discussion of Thatched Cottage, positing Yu’s use of historical styles as expressions of the ambitions of his patron, his historical moment, and indeed himself. The argument concludes with an attempt to determine the identity of the sitter through an investigation of Kangxi-period documents and other sources.

Surface Area Estimates of Streams and Rivers Occupied by Nonnative Fish and Amphibians in the Western USA

AbstractStatistically robust, broad‐scale measures of the portion of an aquatic resource (e.g., a stream and river network) occupied by nonnative fish and amphibian species should be useful to resource managers but with a few exceptions have not been available. We used data from the western stream and river survey of the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency's Environmental Monitoring and Assessment Program to estimate the surface area of flowing waters occupied by nonnative fish and amphibian species at three spatial scales. For the 12‐state survey area, an estimated 75% of the surface area of the target stream network had one or more nonnative fish or amphibian species, compared with 52% of the stream length. At all spatial scales (except the state of Washington), the estimates of the proportion of surface area with nonnatives were larger than those for estimated stream length. The relative extent of occupancy for individual species often differed depending on how they were assessed. For example, when assessed by length of network occupied, brook trout Salvelinus fontinalis was the most widespread nonnative fish (17%) but dropped to ninth position when assessed by surface area occupied (7%), while common carp Cyprinus carpio went from fourth position (10% of stream length) to second position when assessed by surface area occupied (27%). Estimates of the surface areas of flowing waters occupied by nonnative species are useful and easily calculated additions to the ways in which probability‐based surveys can assess the condition of the resource.

ἨΡΙΔΑΝΟΣ, Le « fleuve de l'ouest »

The author identifies a Gaulish and Continental Celtic prefix ēri-parallel to the Irish preposition (/ prefix/ preverb) íar-“ behind, after” and (in local adverbs) “ west, western”. This may clarify the etymology of some Proper Names : ! Hridanov", a stream mentioned by ancient writers, would then be a “ western stream” (dāno-“ stream”, as in Rodanos et Danuvius) ; Eregina, and Aerius would be formed on the same preposition, with the semantism of Welsh wyr “ grand son”. The theonym Hēricura would have been the “ west wind”.

Calibration and Evaluation of a Mercury Model for a Western Stream and Constructed Wetland

Numerous studies have shown that Steamboat Creek in Nevada is highly contaminated with mercury, with aqueous mercury concentrations more than two orders of magnitude greater than nearby mountain streams. One objective of this study was to determine if the new Spreadsheet-based Ecological Risk Assessment for the Fate of Mercury (SERAFM) model could be calibrated to the concentrations of unfiltered and dissolved total mercury, and unfiltered and dissolved MeHg in the water column for a reach on SBC and a related constructed wetland mesocosm for different seasons and residence times. SERAFM is a new U.S. Environmental Protection Agency steady state, single segment, mass balance mercury model that has been applied to lakes, and this study also examined the model’s applicability for modeling an arid flowing water environment in different seasons. The average combined error between observed and model-estimated mercury concentrations was 12% and 17% for the reach and mesocosm, respectively. Some recommendations are proposed that may allow SERAFM to better model flowing systems.

Seasonal characteristics of the Tsushima Current in the Tsushima/Korea Strait obtained by a fine-resolution numerical model

The horizontal distribution of the Tsushima Current in the Tsushima/Korea Strait is assessed by a fine-resolution numerical experiment. The comparison of the model results with the observations along a section crossing the strait shows that the model represents relatively well, the general tendency of what was observed, such as the separation of the Tsushima Current into the western and eastern streams by the Tsushima Island. In summer, strong and relatively uniformly distributed surface currents enhance the formation of the wake downstream of the Tsushima Island. The axis of the countercurrent, embedded in the wake, is closer to the western stream. Anti-cyclonic eddies are shed near the downstream tip of the Tsushima Island and propagate along the boundary between the western stream and the wake. The exchange of water between the western stream and the wake takes place through the intermediation of these eddies. There is a net water supply from the western stream to the wake, which is then carried to the eastern stream by the countercurrent via the eastern coast of the Tsushima Island. In winter, currents, strongly barotropic, tend to have banded structures, especially in the region downstream of the western channel where isobaths converge in the downstream direction. The eddies found in this region in winter appear to be fundamentally different from those associated with the Tsushima Island wake. The necessary condition for barotropic instability is satisfied for the monthly mean currents in this region, suggesting that the currents are barotropically unstable in this region in winter.

Biological Control of Tropical Weeds: Research Opportunities in Plant–Herbivore Interactions1

INVASIVE EXOTIC SPECIES ARE A MAJOR ECOLOGICAL PROBLEM in many of the world's ecosystems (Sala et al. 2000). With some notable exceptions, however, most tropical moist forests appear to be resistant to the impacts of invasive exotic plants (Rejmainek 1996, Denslow & DeWalt in press). Sala et al. (2000), for example, identified land use change, but not biotic exchange, as the major threat to tropical ecosystems. However, the impacts of invasive exotic plants are a leading threat to native ecosystems on oceanic islands, where naturalized exotic plants have doubled the sizes of floras (Sax et al. 2002). On tropical islands, exotic species invade intact forests, alter successional trajectories, impede restoration of endangered plant communities, and contribute to the degradation of fragmented ecosystems (Denslow & DeWalt in press). These impacts are of special concern because tropical islands are repositories of great biodiversity and are characterized by high levels of endemism and large numbers of threatened and endangered species. Furthermore, continental tropical forests that are fragmented or otherwise disturbed also are vulnerable to the impacts of exotic invaders (e.g., Humphries et al. 1992), and control of invasive exotic plants is a major cost for many land managers. Unfortunately, the options available for management of established invasive species are few and costly and carry risk of unintended consequences. A tool with great promise is the introduction of exotic hostspecific arthropods or pathogens to reduce the abundance, rate of spread, and/or habitat distribution of the target plant in its invasive range. Classical biological control is based on the premise that the population explosions of some exotic species in their introduced ranges are due in part to their escape from their native herbivoresthe ecological release hypothesis (Keane & Crawley 2002, DeWalt etal. 2004, Levine etal. 2004). Historically, the primary objective of weed biocontrol has been the direct reduction in density, cover, and range of target weeds that suppress desirable forage species, are toxic or unpalatable to livestock or that impede waterways. Most of this experience has developed in nonforest ecosystems (Coombs et al. 2004) and at temperate as opposed to tropical latitudes; among weed genera targeted by biocontrol worldwide (except Australia which has both tropical and nontropical ecosystems), 51 percent have been exclusively nontropical and only 25 percent exclusively tropical (Julien & Griffiths 1998). In some cases, this approach has met with dramatic success, e.g., St. John's wort: Hypericumperforatum L. (Harris et al. 1969), leafy spurge: Euphorbia esula L. (Harris 1993), various cactus species: Opuntia spp. (e.g., Moran & Zimmermann 1991), water hyacinth: Eichornia crassipes (Martius) Solms-Laubach (Center et al. 1999b), and giant salvinia: Salvinia molesta D. S. Mitchell (Room et al. 1981). The use of introduced arthopods and pathogens to control exotic wildland weeds is more recent but is showing promise in the control of paperbark: Melaleuca quinquenervia (Cav.) Blake in the Florida Everglades (Center et al. 2000), purple loosestrife: Lythrum salicaria L. in the northern (U.S.) wetlands (Blossey 2002), saltcedar: Tamarix spp. along western (U.S.) stream courses (DeLoach & Carruthers 2004), and several Acacia species in South Africa (Impson et al. 2000). Concern has been expressed over the use of biocontrol agents because of their potential to cause'both direct and indirect nontarget impacts (Simberloff & Stiling 1996; Louda et al. 1997, 2003; McEvoy & Coombs 2000). Nontarget impacts of introduced biocontrol agents for weeds can take the form of direct feeding by the agent on nontarget plant species (Pemberton 2000) or indirect interactions such as competition with native herbivores (Louda et al. 1997) and alteration of the community trophic structure (Henneman & Memmott 2001). Recent reviews provide evidence that the risk of direct nontarget impacts is greatest in closely related species and that the agents released following modern, widely accepted host-range testing protocols and review processes rarely affect nontarget species (Pemberton 2000). However, only a small proportion of agents released are effective at reducing the target species, and our understanding of indirect interactions of introduced biocontrol agents is rudimentary (McEvoy & Coombs 2000). As our appreciation grows of the harm caused by invasive plants in native ecosystems, the use of biological control agents in wildlands becomes increasingly attractive. Extensive use of chemical and mechanical control methods in native ecosystems also can have substantial secondary effects, including impacts on nontarget species and ecosystem processes. In addition to their high host specificity, biocontrol agents can be effective over large areas of poorly accessible terrain. In many tropical countries, where available resources-both financial and human-for the long-term control of invasive species in natural areas are small, cost-effectiveness makes biological control an attractive conservation tool. 1 Received 3 March 2005; revision accepted 17 June 2005. 2 Corresponding author; e-mail: jdenslow@fs.fed.us

The genetic legacy of western Bantu migrations

There is little knowledge on the demographic impact of the western wave of the Bantu expansion. Only some predictions could be made based mainly on indirect archaeological, linguistic, and genetic evidences. Apart from the very limited available data on the mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) side, there are not, however, Y-chromosome studies revealing-if any-the male contribution of western Bantu-farmers. To elucidate the still poorly characterized western Bantu expansion, we analyzed Y-chromosome (25 biallelic polymorphisms and 15 microsatellite markers) and mtDNA (hypervariable control regions I and II and selected coding region RFLPs) variation in a population of 110 individuals from southwest Africa, and compared it with a database of 2,708 Y-chromosome profiles and of 2,565 mtDNAs from all other regions of Africa. This study reveals (1) a dramatic displacement of male and female Khoisan-speaking groups in the southwest, since both the maternal and the paternal genetic pools were composed exclusively by types carried by Bantu-speakers; (2) a clear bias in the admixture process towards the mating of male Europeans with female Sub-Saharan Africans; (3) the assimilation of east African lineages by the southwest (mainly mtDNA-L3f and Y-chromosome-B2a lineages); and (4) signatures of recent male and female gene flow from the southeast into the southwest. The data also indicate that the western stream of the Bantu expansion was a more gradual process than the eastern counterpart, which likely involved multiple short dispersals.

Yuan Hong: A Case of Premature Death by Historians?

~i?-BfiiI~ ~ 'Tis night: and on the Western Stream here swims the Cattle Isle. ~E t|| No cloud to fleck the spotless sky that stretches mile on mile. ~I ^-8 k Within my skiff I float away the Autumn Moon to view Mg1~',~ !8t} In idle dreams of General Xie who raised to fame a poet new. L^Ft^r i A lofty strain I too can lift. But what will that avail? FiT)TPJR There is no patron now to hear my heart-string's sobbing wail. tH)SJ 4 f M Our matting sails we raise again to meet to-morrow's sun, KX,X,2,R, 1 As from the tree the maple leaves are dropping one by one.2

Strontium isotope composition of runoff from a glaciated carbonate terrain

The relationship between subglacial chemical weathering processes and the Sr isotope composition of runoff from Robertson Glacier, Alberta, Canada, is investigated. This glacier rests on predominantly carbonate bedrock of Upper Devonian age, but silicate minerals are also present. The provenance of solute in meltwaters is found to vary systematically with solute concentration and, by inference, subglacial water residence time. In dilute waters, the principal process of solute acquisition is calcite dissolution fueled by protons derived from the dissolution of CO2 and subsequent dissociation of carbonic acid. At higher solute concentrations, dolomite dissolution coupled to sulfide oxidation is more important. Sr concentration is found to increase with total solute concentration in two separate meltwater streams draining from the glacier, but 87Sr/86Sr only increases in the eastern melt stream. Carbonate and K-feldspar sources are shown to dominate the Sr content of the western stream, irrespective of concentration. They also dominate the Sr content of the eastern stream at low and intermediate concentrations, but at higher concentrations, muscovite (with high 87Sr/86Sr) is also an important Sr source. This reflects the outcrop of muscovite-bearing lithologies in the catchment of the eastern stream and an increase in the rate of weathering of K-silicates relative to that of carbonates as more concentrated solutions approach saturation with respect to carbonates. Nonstoichiometric release of 87Sr/86Sr and preferential release of Sr over K from freshly ground K-silicate surfaces may also occur. This may help to explain the radiogenic nature of runoff from distributed subglacial drainage systems, which are characterized by long water:rock contact times and water flow through environments in which crushing and grinding of bedrock are active processes.Although the exchangeable Sr in tills has higher 87Sr/86Sr than local carbonate bedrock, only the more concentrated meltwaters from the eastern stream display similarly high values. The most dilute waters, which probably transport the bulk of the dissolved Sr flux from the glacier, have 87Sr/86Sr characteristic of local carbonate bedrock. Thus, the results suggest that although enhanced weathering of silicate minerals containing radiogenic Sr (such as muscovite) does occur in glaciated carbonate terrains, it is unlikely to contribute to any enhanced flux of radiogenic Sr from glaciated continental surfaces to the oceans.

Habitat‐Specific Solute Retention in Two Small Streams: An Intersite Comparison

We measured uptake rates of phosphorus, nitrate, calcium, and dissolved organic carbon within two headwater streams, one in the Appalachian mountains of North Carolina and the other in the Cascade range of Oregon. The major physical differences between these two streams are parent geology and local geomorphic structure. Uptake rates were measured following low—level nutrient releases during summer 1987 in 20—m reaches with different geomorphology. The relative importance of biotic vs. abiotic sorption of nitrogen and phosphorus by sediments from the two streams was assessed by laboratory experiments. Nitrate—N uptake rates were high for the western stream (11.9 mg°m—2°min—1) and low for the eastern stream (3.9 mg°m—2°min—1) during the summer. The debris dam reaches in Oregon were the most retentive of N (shortest uptake length of 17 m). Conversely, soluble reactive phosphorus (SRP) uptake rates were higher for the eastern stream (18.6 mg°m—2°min—1), primarily through biotic processes. SRP uptake lengths were short for the cobble (32 m), debris dam (35 m), and rock outcrop (40 m) reaches in the eastern stream. Uptake of SRP in either stream was not related to sediment size fraction but rather to a combination of sediment infiltration rates and quality of organic material. Calcium (Ca) uptake lengths were long in the Oregon stream (1278 m) but short in the Appalachian stream (106 m). Surprisingly, the eastern stream was more retentive of Ca than nitrate (shorter uptake lengths for Ca) during this time period. Debris dams greatly enhanced retention of dissolved organic carbon in both streams (60% of all uptake in the eastern stream and 81% in the western stream), although retention was greater in the eastern stream. The lower uptake rate of phosphorus and higher uptake rate of nitrate in the Oregon stream were expected based on geographic location and parent geology; streams in this area drain catchments of volcanic origin and tend to have low N:P (atomic; 1.8 for the western stream) ratios, indicating potential N limitation. Streams flowing over granitic bedrock, such as the eastern stream, tend to have lower P availability (N:P = 15.5). The combined results of laboratory and field measurements indicate that in the eastern stream, strong biotic control of P uptake coupled with high P demand result in relatively short P uptake lengths and a strong impact of P spiraling on ecosystem dynamics. In the western stream, strong biotic control of N uptake combined with strong N demand result in short N uptake lengths. This is especially true at sites of downed timber that retain both FPOM and CPOM, creating a high N demand (shortening N spirals).

Congo to Kalahari: data and hypotheses about the political economy of the western stream of the Early Iron Age

This paper provides a preliminary account of archaeological research on sites of early pottery-using people in the coastal region of the Congo Republic. The results obtained are compared with observations from Botswana and used to amplify archaeological and lingustic data relevant to the transformations in social and productive forces that occurred across the western part of sub-equatorial Africa during the period when food production, metallurgy and long-distance trade were established. Particular attention is paid to evidence for developing economic and social relations between indigenous foragers and immigrant food producers.

Chronology of landscape evolution and soil development in the upper Flinders River area, Queensland, based on isotopic dating of Cainozoic basalts

Three planation surfaces have been formed by fluvial processes during the Late Cainozoic in the catchment of the upper Flinders River, central N Queensland. The ages of the surfaces have been assessed by reference to associated, isotopically‐dated basalt flows of the Sturgeon Volcanic Province. The oldest planation surface, the Denna Plain, carries remnants of a lateritic weathering profile that is considerably older than 6.3 Ma. This plain had developed its major geomorphic characteristics prior to 5.7–5.3 Ma ago since some of its red and yellow earth soils are overlain by basalt flows of that age. The Prairie Plain is set below the Denna Plain and its surface is younger than 5.6 Ma, but formed some time before 3.3 Ma. The youngest planation surface, the Hughenden Plain, is widely developed over northwestern Queensland. Though still being extended, it was essentially established by 1 Ma ago. Existing remnants of the planation surfaces have been little modified by erosional or depositional processes since their formation and most of their soils have been developing since the times of planation. The Flinders River drainage was originally to the S (Lake Eyre catchment), but it was betrunked by a western stream to develop its present course to the Gulf of Carpentaria. This diversion is relatively young and appears to have occurred between 5.5 Ma and 3.3 Ma ago.

Archaeology in Eastern Africa: Recent Developments and More Dates

Obsidian hydration dating has been successfully applied to East African archaeological sites. Chemical sourcing of obsidian artefacts has documented long-distance movement of obsidian from the Central Rift valley. A date in the ninth or eighth century b.c. has been obtained for iron objects in the Er Renk District of the Southern Sudan. Tentative culture-historical sequences are available from excavations around the Sudd and in the Lake Besaka region of Ethiopia. Archaeological research has begun in the interior of Somalia. In northern Kenya, claims that Namoratunga II is an archaeo-astronomical site have been challenged. Excavations at Mumba-Höhle and Nasera have shed new light on the transition from the Middle to Later Stone Age in northern Tanzania perhaps 20,000 to 30,000 years ago. Knowledge of the Elmenteitan Tradition has been considerably advanced by excavations in south-western Kenya. Iron-smelting furnaces with finger-decorated bricks have been discovered in south-eastern Kenya, though not yet dated. New dates falling in the last few centuries have caused first millennium a.d. dates obtained previously for Engaruka to be rejected. Excavations at several sites on the East African coast indicate that the beginnings of coastal occupation from the Lamu archipelago to Mozambique fall in the ninth century a.d. In Malawi the Shire Highlands seem to have been settled around the tenth century a.d. Investigations of large smelting-furnaces in central Malawi indicate that they were used as concentrators of poor-quality iron ore. Excavations in rock-shelters on the southern edge of the Copperbelt have produced a culture-historical sequence spanning the last 18,000 years. The western stream of the Early Iron Age was established in the Upper Zambezi valley by about the mid fifth century a.d.

The Chronology of the Iron Age in Bantu Africa

Mrs Barbara Ottaway has proposed that the interquartile range of the radiocarbon dates available for a given industry will provide an estimate of the floruit of that industry. The present paper examines some four hundred radiocarbon dates which have so far been processed from Iron Age sites in Bantu Africa, and concludes that the intersextile range provides a more accurate approximation for the floruit of individual industries than does the interquartile range. This approach permits the presentation of a more precise inter-regional synthesis of Iron Age chronology than has previously been attempted. It is demonstrated that the earliest manifestations of the Early Iron Age Industrial Complex are in East Africa. Further to the south, two distinct streams of the Early Iron Age are recognized: that in the eastern part of the sub-continent had penetrated as far to the south as the Transvaal some centuries before the western stream spread into what is now Zambia. The inception of the later Iron Age, around the eleventh century A.D., is shown to have been at least as rapid as was that of the Early Iron Age.In view of the greater precision which the above methodology imparts to the radiocarbon-based chronology, a brief discussion is presented of the calibrations which dendrochronological studies provide between radiocarbon ages and calendar ages. It is concluded that, for the period of the sub-Saharan African Iron Age, the corrections which are called for are minor in comparison with the standard errors of individual radiocarbon dates; and the application of such calibrations to Iron Age dates is not recommended.

The Night Sky in September

THE moon is full on September 15 and there will be a partial eclipse, invisible at Greenwich, the middle of the eclipse occurring at 17h. 47m. U.T. Venus is an evening star and is in conjunction with the moon on 24d. OOh. Mars is a morning star, crossing the meridian at 2h. 54m. and Oh. 46ni. at the beginning and end of the month respectively, and is in conjunction with the moon on September 9d. 02h. Jupiter is a morning star and crosses the meridian at 6h. 32m. and 4h. 48m. on Sept. 1 and 30; the planet is in conjunction with the moon on Sept. 13d. 18h. and will be 5° N. of the moon. Saturn is a morning star and souths at 4h. 12m. in the middle of the month. On Sept. 11d. 22m. it is in conjunction with the moon and will be 3° N. of the moon. New moon occurs on Sept. 21 and there will be a total eclipse of the sun, invisible at Greenwich. The path of totality passes along the northern end of the Caspian Sea, Turkestan, Central China, and the western part of the Pacific. The longer evenings provide an opportunity for viewing the Milky Way, the great bifurcation occurring in Cygnus and extending along the galactic equator. The eastern portion can be seen running through Aquila, Scutum, Sagittarius and Scorpio, where the broken western stream partially unites with it. In the late evening the beautiful group of stars in the constellation of Taurus—the Pleiades—can be seen. Their rising with the sun is referred to by the Greek poet, Aratos, as the harbinger of summer, and their rising at night, that is, after sunset, indicated the coming of winter. The variable star, Algol, is well placed for observation throughout the whole night and its rapid fluctuations in magnitude are always a source of interest. The pride of the Constellation of Andromeda—the Great Nebula of Andromeda—is visible to the naked eye and can be easily recognized close to the star ν Andromedse. It looks like a ‘fleecy’ star, but is spiral in structure and is a great universe like our galaxy, about 870,000 light–years away, containing hundreds of millions of stars. In the outer portions are many stars of the Cepheid variable type, so valuable for the determination of distances.