Western Pacific Rim Research Articles

Wave climate and energy resources in the Mariana Islands from a 42-year high-resolution hindcast

A high-resolution wave hindcast from 1979 to 2020 was developed for Guam and the Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands, which are influenced by mesoscale and synoptic weather systems from the western Pacific Rim to the Central Pacific. The spectral wave modeling utilized structured global and unstructured regional grids with improved resolution in nearshore waters, where wave resources development is most feasible. The hindcast demonstrates its capability in capturing multi-modal seas through reproduction of bulk and partitioned wave parameters derived from altimetry and buoy measurements. The local wave climate is influenced by the year-round trade winds and tropical cyclones as well as seasonal monsoons, frontal systems, and mid-latitude high- and low-pressure systems. The strong intra-annual variation of the significant wave height and power flux reflects transitions between local and distant weather systems, which account for the diverse wave conditions comprised of short-period wind waves, intermediate-period seas, and long-period swells around the islands. Among the Pacific island regions, spectral partitioning is particularly important for describing the dominant wave components by period and direction with pertinent information conducive to energy resources characterization and coastal zone management in the Mariana Islands.

Evaluation of dogs (Canis familiaris) as an indicator of Japanese encephalitis (JE) outbreaks: A retrospective serological study in the Seoul metropolitan area around the 2010 resurgence of JE in the Republic of Korea

Japanese encephalitis (JE) is a mosquito-borne zoonotic neurological disease caused by Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV). JEV is the most common cause of viral encephalitis in Southeast Asia and the Western Pacific Rim. The fatality rate due to JE can reach 25% and up to 50% of the patients who survive develop permanent neurological damage. The annual incidence of human JE markedly increased in the Republic of Korea (ROK) in 2010 but the reason for the reemergence of JE in the ROK has not been established. This study aimed to assess the extent of exposure of domestic dogs to JEV in the Seoul metropolitan area, one of the most populated areas in the world. This cross-sectional study serologically investigated the spread of JEV in the dog population. Using serum neutralization test, we examined 3597 serum samples collected from pet, shelter, stray, and farmed dogs in the Seoul metropolitan area from 2006 to 2012. JEV-neutralizing antibodies found in shelter, stray, and farmed dogs sampled in approximately 2010 demonstrated increased JEV circulation in the dog population during the 2010 resurgence of JE reported among humans in the ROK. Five out of 1102 pet dogs (0.5%) were found to be neutralizing antibodies against JEV and 24 of 719 shelter dogs (3.1%) were positive with a peak of 13.0% in 2010. In addition, 25 of 690 stray dogs (3.6%) were positive with a peak of 9.7% in 2009, a year before the 2010 resurgence of JE. Furthermore, 39 of 1086 farmed dogs (3.6%) were seropositive with a peak of 9.2% in 2009. We therefore suggest that monitoring dog populations for seroconversion or seropositive dogs within JEV-active endemic areas may be useful for identifying risk areas for JE outbreaks and that JEV activity in dogs can be an indicator as the harbingers of JEV in humans.

A New Species of Murex (Gastropoda: Muricidae) From the Andaman Sea, Thailand

A new species of the genus Murex (Family Muricidae) is described from an island in the Andaman Islands chain off Pang-nga Province, southwest Thailand in the Andamanian Subprovince. This geographical subprovince is located in the eastern Andaman Sea, East Indian Ocean. Murex suttipraneeae sp. nov. is conchologically differentiated from a closely related species; Murex pecten Lightfoot, 1786 and its complex from other geographical provinces around the western Pacific rim.

Early Plotopteridae Specimens (Aves) from the Itanoura and Kakinoura Formations (Latest Eocene to Early Oligocene), Saikai, Nagasaki Prefecture, Western Japan

Plotopterids, commonly known as “penguin-like birds”, are wing-propelled diving birds known from the latest Eocene to middle Miocene in the eastern and western Pacific Rim. Here, we describe two new specimens of the family Plotopteridae, a right femur from the Itanoura Formation (latest Eocene to earliest Oligocene), and a distal half of a right tibiotarsus from the Kakinoura Formation (early Oligocene), both at the lower part of the Nishisonogi Group, Saikai City, Nagasaki Prefecture, Kyushu, southwestern Japan. The femur is slightly younger than or potentially as old as the earliest plotopterid known from Japan and the U.S.A. CT scanning revealed that it has a dense cortical bone, justifying its taxonomic assignment to the family Plotopteridae. It resembles the femur of Olympidytes, which was previously considered endemic to North America, in its femoral neck, well developed trochanter femoris, and straight facies articularis antitrochanterica, but is not assignable to any known genus. The tibiotarsus resembles that of Olympidytes in the presence of a well-developed trochlea catilaginis tibialis, a large embossment lateral to the pons supratendineus, and a deep incisura intercondylaris, and therefore referable to Olympidytes. The possibility of hindlimb-propelled diving in the family Plotopteidae was also discussed. These new specimens suggest the early diversity of the family in Japan was higher than previously thought.

Hebeloma in the Malay Peninsula: Masquerading within Psathyrella.

In 1994 Corner published five new species within the genus Psathyrella, all having been collected on the Malay Peninsula between 1929 and 1930. Three of these species belong to the genus Hebeloma and with their vinaceous colored lamellae and spore print, when fresh, they belong to H. sect. Porphyrospora. Of these three species, only one, P. flavidifolia, was validly published and thus we herewith recombine it as H. flavidifolium. The other two species, P. splendens and P. verrucispora, are synonyms of H. parvisporum and H. lactariolens, respectively. We also describe a new Malayan species, H. radicans, which also belongs to H. sect. Porphyrospora. These findings confirm the western Pacific Rim as a diversity hotspot for H. sect. Porphyrospora. The records described within this paper, represent the first recognition that the genus Hebeloma, and indeed that members of the ectomycorrhizal Hymenogastraceae, are present on the Malay Peninsula.

Journey of Signs and Shop Signs From Prehistory to Digital Age

The published research related to history of signs presents a generic commentary. Therefore, this paper presents a detailed scrutiny of the essence and the narrative behind the evolution of signs [focus: shop signs]. According to The Complete Encyclopedia of Signs and Symbols, ‘Signs are vehicles for information and meaning, operating on many different levels – the universal and particular, intellectual and emotional, spatial and temporal, spiritual and material.’ Later periods of human civilization witnessed a conscious shift from the traditional industry to a knowledge-based economy that inculcates information-digitization. These signs were not only reflections of owners’ tastes and personality, but also formed the ethnic makeup of a street market. Gradually in the digital age, commercially oriented signs started giving continuity to public spaces and built streetscapes. This paper brings forth an emergence of signs and shop signs in India, rest of the Asian Pacific Rim countries followed by European countries and finally the Western Pacific Rim countries in North and South America

At the World’s End: The British, Takao, and Southeast Asia, 1864–1895

Abstract This paper examines the history of the commercial maritime activities associated with the former British Consulate at Takao (1864–1895) by considering its role as a facilitator of trade and international relations, particularly with Southeast Asia. The Takao Consulate fostered international trade between Southern Taiwan and Southeast Asia through the trading firm Jardine Matheson and contributed to the favorable economic conditions that were further enhanced by the Japanese Empire’s colonial administration of Taiwan from 1895 to 1945. By drawing on Man-Houng Lin’s work on the development of Taiwan in the late 19th to early 20th century, examining the history of the Consulate, locating Taiwan in the nexus of commercial links spanning the Western Pacific rim, and analyzing the links between the implementation of state policies and the conduct of international business, we will provide a contextualisation of the prevailing foreign trade policies of the Taiwanese government.

Fishing for Oil: Natural-Resource Management between the United States and Maritime East Asia in the 1970s

The possibility of oil reserves under the seabed of the East China Sea created competition between Japan, South Korea, and Taiwan to claim ownership of these natural resources. The dispute marked the start of international cooperation in maritime East Asia and introduced the United States into this power game due to its exploration techniques and financial power. While Taibei, Tokyo, and Seoul put sovereignty-related disputes aside in an attempt to explore resources jointly, the change in international politics in East Asia and Washington’s perception of the western Pacific rim led to the failure of cooperation. This article argues that this international power game over natural resources management epitomized the dynamic politics between the United States and its East Asian allies. The roles of sovereignty, local interests, and U.S. international security created a dynamic scenario revealing how oil reserves were never the issue, but instead the embodiment of the actual concerns of these players behind their diplomatic language. Situating the 1970s oil exploration in the context of the Cold War, this article provides a historical lens to understand the contours of the shifting geopolitical structure in maritime East Asia.

Model evaluation and intercomparison of surface-level ozone and relevant species in East Asia in the context of MICS-Asia Phase III – Part 1: Overview

Abstract. Spatiotemporal variations of ozone (O3) and nitrogen oxide (NOx) mixing ratios from 14 state-of-the-art chemical transport models (CTMs) are intercompared and evaluated with O3 observations in East Asia, within the framework of the Model Inter-Comparison Study for Asia Phase III (MICS-Asia III). This study was designed to evaluate the capabilities and uncertainties of current CTMs simulations for Asia and to provide multi-model estimates of pollutant distributions. These models were run by 14 independent groups working in China, Japan, South Korea, the United States and other countries/regions. Compared with the previous phase of MICS-Asia (MICS-Asia II), the evaluation with observations was extended from 4 months to 1 full year across China and the western Pacific Rim. In general, model performance levels for O3 varied widely by region and season. Most models captured the key patterns of monthly and diurnal variation of surface O3 and its precursors in the North China Plain and western Pacific Rim but failed to do so for the Pearl River Delta. A significant overestimation of surface O3 was evident from May to September/October and from January to May over the North China Plain, the western Pacific Rim and the Pearl River Delta. Comparisons drawn from observations show that the considerable diversity in O3 photochemical production partly contributed to this overestimation and to high levels of inter-model variability in O3 for North China. In terms of O3 soundings, the ensemble average of models reproduced the vertical structure for the western Pacific, but overestimated O3 levels to below 800 hPa in the summer. In the industrialized Pearl River Delta, the ensemble average presented an overestimation for the lower troposphere and an underestimation for the middle troposphere. The ensemble average of 13 models for O3 did not always exhibit superior performance compared with certain individual models in contrast with its superior value for Europe. This finding suggests that the spread of ensemble-model values does not represent all of the uncertainties of O3 or that most MICS-Asia III models missed key processes. This study improved the performance of modeling O3 in March at Japanese sites compared with MICS-Asia II. However, it overpredicted surface O3 concentrations for western Japan in July, which was not found by MICS-Asia II. Major challenges still remain with regard to identifying the sources of bias in surface O3 over East Asia in CTMs.

Bipolar Disorder in Statehood: is China “Dr. Jekyll” or “Mr. Hyde” or Both?

American and Chinese interests seem to be at one time in agreement and at another at loggerheads over issues that involve armed services, diplomacy, economics, human rights, intelligence, trade and culture. Part of what may appear to be a growing déracinement, or mutual disenchantment, arising from diverse viewpoints over infrastructure development globally but especially in sensitive developing areas such as the stand-off in the South China Sea and elsewhere along the Pacific coastline of Southeast Asia, and the Western Pacific Rim. China seems to be reconstructing its ancient feudal empire, actual or imaginary, in the territory to its South, the ASEAN bloc. This article will address some issues of compatibility and conflict that unite China but that sometimes divide it from the United States and the West, then assesses what alternative strategies should be adopted or abandoned in the interests of global and regional harmony coupled with security. It urges greater cooperation and collaboration, a development of a code of conduct for state behavior in the Indo-Asia-Pacific region, together with a concerted East–West effort to maintain a stable economy for China and a sustainable trade relationship between China, Europe, and North America.

Japanese Encephalitis Virus: Placing Disease Vectors in the Epidemiologic Triad

The epidemiologic triad (epi-triad) classically consists of agent, host, and environment. However, with vector-borne diseases (arthropod-transmitted pathogens), the vector plays a vital role, and without the vector there is no sustained pathogen transmission. By not emphasizing the importance of the arthropod vector, the role of the vector is often neglected or underappreciated. The complexities of vector-borne diseases are reviewed by describing the ecology and transmission of the Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), the causative agent of Japanese encephalitis (JE). JE is a mosquito-borne zoonosis that affects most countries in South and Southeast Asia, and the Western Pacific Rim. It is considered the main cause of viral encephalitis in that region, affecting mainly children up to 14 yr old. The virus is transmitted by mosquitoes, particularly of the Culex genus, and the transmission cycle is complex, involving pigs and ardeid birds as reservoir hosts. Environmental, ecological, and social determinants play a paramount role on the epidemiology of JE and JEV, as well as on its geographical expansion over new territories. JE has no cure; thus, efforts are put forth towards prevention and control by reducing exposure to potentially infected mosquitoes, or vaccination. The sections below cover the most important aspects of JE and JEV, providing a summary of the current body of knowledge and placing the complicated transmission cycle in context of a new epi-triad.

Occurrence, Distribution, and Introduction of Zoysia spp. and their Management and Current Use in Australia

Zoysia spp. are native to Australia as part of the wider distribution of the genus around the western Pacific Rim. Three taxa—two subspecies of Z. macrantha Desv. and tropical material provisionally attributed to Z. matrella (L.) Merr.—are distributed naturally along the eastern and southern coasts, mostly in littoral or near‐coastal situations. Zoysia matrella of the Asian type is found on distant offshore island territories in the Indian Ocean but has not been confirmed as native to mainland Australia. Taxonomic and agronomic studies of the native Zoysia germplasm are ongoing. Introductions of exotic Zoysia spp. have been made progressively since about the late 1950s, sometimes as seed, but mostly as vegetatively propagated accessions. Nevertheless, Zoysia spp. remain minor warm‐season turfgrasses in Australia, mainly grown in subtropical and tropical areas. In addition to at least six nonproprietary varieties, there are 18 zoysiagrass cultivars either registered or undergoing registration for Plant Breeder's Rights in Australia. Interest in the native Zoysia germplasm is increasing, in part because of the local marketability of their native origin and evidence of superior drought and cold tolerance in some clones. This interest has led to the recent development of four cultivars from Z. macrantha.

Ecological Implications of Zoysia Species, Distribution, and Adaptation for Management and Use of Zoysiagrasses

The genus Zoysia Willd. comprises ±10 recognized species indigenous to the western Pacific Rim and Indian Ocean, which are collectively called “zoysiagrasses.” Three species—Z. japonica Steud., Z. matrella (L.) Merr., and Z. pacifica (Goudswaard) M. Hotta & Kuroki (previously referred to as Z. tenuifolia)—plus interspecific hybrids have a long history of use as warm‐season perennial turf and ornamental grasses in many countries. Recently, cultivars from two other species, Z. macrantha Desv. and Z. sinica Hance, have also been developed. Breeders are currently exploring the potential to incorporate attributes from these and other Zoysia species into future zoysiagrass cultivars through hybridization. The attributes of Zoysia turfgrass cultivars—their strengths and limitations—can be related back to the species and germplasm from which they have been derived, and which (together with growth and development characteristics unique to the zoysiagrasses) ultimately determine their adaptation, use, and management. Differences in temperature, shade, drought, salinity, and traffic tolerance, as well as differences in nutritional and mowing requirements among zoysiagrasses, plus comparisons with Cynodon spp. turfgrasses, are highlighted.

Revival of “Dollar Diplomacy” As United States Foreign Economic Policy in 2017: Tradeoffs Exchanged to Maintain Trade and Restore Peace Along the Tottering Western Pacific Rim

Background, Objectives and Goals: From their auspicious meeting at the “Southern” White House, Mar-a-Lago, West Palm Beach, Florida on 5-6 April 2017, U.S. President Donald J. Trump and China’s President Xi Jinping seem to have struck up a friendship accord intended to maintain, hopefully augment, Western trade with China and in the process diffuse burgeoning tensions along the Western Pacific rim caused by aggressive rhetoric and belligerent behavior of Kim Jong-Un, leader of the “Democratic” People’s Republic of Korea [North Korea]. In the process, the United States appears to be recasting its foreign economic policy as a return to “Dollar Diplomacy,” the hallmark of American foreign policy during the William Howard Taft presidency (1909 – 1913), mostly out of favour since then until the present moment. An objective of this paper is to clarify and articulate characteristics of “Principled Dollar Diplomacy” in the 21st century compared with its 20th century counterpart, to identify what will be its objectives and goals, then to assess the viability and sustainability of the same globally but especially along Asia’s Western Pacific rim, connecting to South and West Asia then Europe along the ancient “Silk Road” of Eurasia as an integral part of President Trump’s “Principled Realism” in foreign policy. Methods: Literature reviewed include historiographical documents reflecting both the current state of, and recent changes to, United States foreign economic policy globally, termed “Principled Realism” by President Trump as it interfaces foreign economic policy with foreign security policy, focusing particularly on what appears to be a tottering Western Pacific rim of mainland Asia, fragmented by hostile rhetoric, nuclear threats, China’s unilateral South China Sea domination. Government reports by individual countries and trading partners plus journalistic accounts, together with diplomatic interviews have been reviewed. Attention is directed to changes in trade volume involving trading partners generally, together with trade values of both imports and exports across the first six months of the Donald Trump administration compared to similar periods in administrations of former American presidents from Theodore Roosevelt to Barrack Obama. Presidential rhetoric will be analysed as communicated to three categories of recipients: foreign heads of state or heads of government, United States business leaders, the global general public. Some historical records are included, comparing Chinese maritime belligerence along the Western Pacific rim with similar activities engaged in by Imperial Germany during World War I then by Nazi Germany during World War II, each with disastrous consequences. Expected Results: Ever since the Florida summit meeting between Presidents Trump and Xi, an economic dialogue appears to have emerged that has expanded into diplomatic discussions involving the DPRK, Association of South East Nations (ASEAN) partners trading with both China and the United States, India, Japan, South Korea. Predicated upon President Trump’s self-assessment of his first 100 days in office, together with legitimate expectations of other nations, it should be possible to gauge the direction of “Dollar Diplomacy” across the first and second 100 days to predict the Strengths and Weaknesses of early changes in United States foreign economic policies over the first six months of the Trump Administration. Positive or negative results should be apparent in trade regimes, trade value, trade volume, as well as changes in rhetoric along the Western Pacific rim, and intensity of involvement if the state parties themselves. Stated succinctly, this is China’s chance to stand out and become a leader, potentially the leader, in Asia, and to work hand in hand with the United States and the Western Alliance to maintain continuity of “Pax Americana” for another 70 years or longer, an enduring peace from which, arguably, China has benefitted more than most countries, and stands to benefit much more across eight more decades of the 21st century. Amongst other factors, an expectation is to witness the United States and other Western Allies join with China in funding its “One Belt, One Road” or “OBOR” across Eurasia, because by partnering a rapprochement with DPRK, China and the United States should grow closer, greater and fairer trade should emerge between these two nations, that burgeoning friendship should draw in Japan and other huge trading partners of both. Possible as a successor to the ill-fated Trans-Pacific Partnership will be a sustainable “Pax Pacifica” reflecting core values of the West alongside China’s stated commitment to decreasing poverty in developing countries, providing an enormous opportunity for the Trump and Xi Administrations to cooperate harmoniously. In addition to the Pacific rim as a region, the DPRK could benefit from Sino-American investment inside of its borders, particularly if China and the West could construct international joint ventures (IJVs) in the region with each functioning as a check and a balance on the other.

Revival of “Dollar Diplomacy” As United States Foreign Economic Policy in 2017: Tradeoffs Exchanged to Maintain Trade and Restore Peace Along the Tottering Western Pacific Rim

Background, Objective and Goals: From their auspicious meeting at the “Southern” White House, Mar-a-Lago, West Palm Beach, Florida on 5-6 April 2017, U.S. President Donald J. Trump and China’s President Xi Jinping seem to have struck up a friendship accord intended to maintain, hopefully augment, Western trade with China and in the process diffuse burgeoning tensions along the Western Pacific rim caused by aggressive rhetoric and belligerent behavior of Kim Jong-Un, leader of the “Democratic” People’s Republic of Korea [North Korea]. In the process, the United States appears to be recasting its foreign economic policy as a return to “Dollar Diplomacy,” the hallmark of American foreign policy during the William Howard Taft presidency (1909 – 1913), mostly out of favour since then until the present moment. An objective of this paper is to clarify and articulate characteristics of “Principled Dollar Diplomacy” in the 21st century compared with its 20th century counterpart, to identify what will be its objectives and goals, then to assess the viability and sustainability of the same globally but especially along Asia’s Western Pacific rim, connecting to South and West Asia then Europe along the ancient “Silk Road” of Eurasia as an integral part of President Trump’s “Principled Realism” in foreign policy. Methods: Literature reviewed include historiographical documents reflecting both the current state of, and recent changes to, United States foreign economic policy globally, termed “Principled Realism” by President Trump as it interfaces foreign economic policy with foreign security policy, focusing particularly on what appears to be a tottering Western Pacific rim of mainland Asia, fragmented by hostile rhetoric, nuclear threats, China’s unilateral South China Sea domination. Government reports by individual countries and trading partners plus journalistic accounts, together with diplomatic interviews have been reviewed. Attention is directed to changes in trade volume involving trading partners generally, together with trade values of both imports and exports across the first six months of the Donald Trump administration compared to similar periods in administrations of former American presidents from Theodore Roosevelt to Barrack Obama. Presidential rhetoric will be analysed as communicated to three categories of recipients: foreign heads of state or heads of government, United States business leaders, the global general public. Some historical records are included, comparing Chinese maritime belligerence along the Western Pacific rim with similar activities engaged in by Imperial Germany during World War I then by Nazi Germany during World War II, each with disastrous consequences. Expected Results: Ever since the Florida summit meeting between Presidents Trump and Xi, an economic dialogue appears to have emerged that has expanded into diplomatic discussions involving the DPRK, Association of South East Nations (ASEAN) partners trading with both China and the United States, India, Japan, South Korea. Predicated upon President Trump’s self-assessment of his first 100 days in office, together with legitimate expectations of other nations, it should be possible to gauge the direction of “Dollar Diplomacy” across the first and second 100 days to predict the Strengths and Weaknesses of early changes in United States foreign economic policies over the first six months of the Trump Administration. Positive or negative results should be apparent in trade regimes, trade value, trade volume, as well as changes in rhetoric along the Western Pacific rim, and intensity of involvement if the state parties themselves. Stated succinctly, this is China’s chance to stand out and become a leader, potentially the leader, in Asia, and to work hand in hand with the United States and the Western Alliance to maintain continuity of “Pax Americana” for another 70 years or longer, an enduring peace from which, arguably, China has benefitted more than most countries, and stands to benefit much more across eight more decades of the 21st century. Amongst other factors, an expectation is to witness the United States and other Western Allies join with China in funding its “One Belt, One Road” or “OBOR” across Eurasia, because by partnering a rapprochement with DPRK, China and the United States should grow closer, greater and fairer trade should emerge between these two nations, that burgeoning friendship should draw in Japan and other huge trading partners of both. Possible as a successor to the ill-fated Trans-Pacific Partnership will be a sustainable “Pax Pacifica” reflecting core values of the West alongside China’s stated commitment to decreasing poverty in developing countries, providing an enormous opportunity for the Trump and Xi Administrations to cooperate harmoniously. In addition to the Pacific rim as a region, the DPRK could benefit from Sino-American investment inside of its borders, particularly if China and the West could construct international joint ventures (IJVs) in the region with each functioning as a check and a balance on the other.

Decadal fluctuations in the western Pacific recorded by long precipitation records in Taiwan

A 110-year precipitation record in Taiwan, located at the western edge of the subtropical North Pacific, depicts a pronounced quasi-decadal oscillation (QDO). The QDO in Taiwan exhibits a fluctuating relationship with the similar decadal variations of sea surface temperature (SST) anomalies in the central equatorial Pacific, known as the Pacific QDO. A regime change was observed around 1960, such that the decadal variation of Taiwan’s precipitation became more synchronized with the Pacific QDO’s coupled evolutions of SST and atmospheric circulation than before, while the underlying pattern of the Pacific QOD did not change. Using long-term reanalysis data and CMIP5 single-forcing experiments, the presented analysis suggests that increased SST in the subtropical western Pacific and the strengthened western extension of the North Pacific subtropical anticyclone may have collectively enhanced the relationship between the Taiwan precipitation and the Pacific QDO. This finding provides possible clues to similar regime changes in quasi-decadal variability observed around the western Pacific rim.

Using pre-critical PKiKP–PcP phases to constrain the regional structures of the inner core boundary beneath East Asia

We collected 177 pre-critical PKiKP–PcP records, assembling a wealth of traveltime and amplitude data. These observations sample the inner core boundary (ICB) beneath East Asia with good spatial coverage. Combined with previous studies, our results demonstrate a 100-km-wide anomaly with positive PKiKP–PcP traveltime residuals surrounded by negatives beneath the Yellow Sea area (123°E, 33°N) (Yellow Sea anomaly). After correcting the elliptic effects and mantle Vp heterogeneities based on the tomography models, the residuals of the Yellow Sea anomaly remain at least 0.6s faster than those of the surrounding areas, suggesting a thickening of 2–3km between the ICB and core mantle boundary (CMB). Due to the negative CMB topography along the western Pacific rim, we attribute this anomaly mainly to negative ICB topography. Across the northern border of the Yellow Sea anomaly, PKiKP/PcP amplitude ratios increase by approximately 50% from north to south, which can be explained by an approximately 0.6g/cm3 raise in ICB density contrast. These traveltime and amplitude features suggest a mosaic structure at the ICB beneath the Yellow Sea areas.

Bullying in South-East Asian Countries: A review

Abstract Bullying among young people is a major concern for educators and health professionals. It has been mostly studied in Western countries, but with a significant amount of research in the Asian Pacific Rim countries of Japan, South Korea, Mainland China and Hong Kong, which suggests that it can exhibit different characteristics in other cultural contexts. Research in this area in South-East Asian countries has been relatively neglected, but has begun to appear in recent years. Here, we review studies on bullying in the 10 ASEAN countries. We summarize the nature and main findings of these studies, and comment on similarities and differences with studies in Western and Asian Pacific Rim societies. Finally we make suggestions for future research which will enhance comparability, respecting cultural differences but moving toward a more effective comparative analysis.

Northern Hemisphere origins of the amphi‐Pacific tropical plant family Symplocaceae

AbstractAimWe sought to reconstruct the historical biogeography of the amphi‐Pacific tropical disjunct plant family Symplocaceae in the context of competing Northern Hemisphere (boreotropical) versus Southern Hemisphere (West Gondwanan) hypotheses for its origin and spread.LocationAmericas, western Pacific Rim, fossil localities in Europe.MethodsWe derived a dated phylogeny using a relaxed clock on a data set of 114 terminals, four genic regions (three plastid regions and the nuclear ribosomal internal transcribed spacer region) and six fossil calibrations. We inferred ancestral geographical ranges with maximum likelihood under a dispersal–extinction–cladogenesis model, with the probability of dispersal constrained by areal distance and palaeogeography.ResultsWe inferred a Eurasian origin for crown‐node Symplocaceae at c. 52 Ma, followed by dispersal to North America (including Mesoamerica) at c. 52–38 Ma. Most of the highest likelihood intra‐American dispersals recovered in the analysis trended from north to south, with none from south to north. Six intra‐American dispersals were inferred to have originated in North America, with lineages either terminating in the Antilles or migrating to South America at various times. One additional North American lineage emigrated back to Eurasia in the late Miocene.Main conclusionsThe predominantly southwards American migrations inferred here for the Symplocaceae conform to the boreotropics hypothesis, apparently driven by cooling and drying climates in the later Cenozoic. The inferred Eurasian origin for the family corroborates a more specific European origin, as suggested independently by its fossil fruit record. Of the lineages ultimately arriving in South America from North America, two are inferred to have migrated through the Antilles (by island‐hopping) and three through Mesoamerica. The timing of one of the Mesoamerican events, inferred to be between 8.9 and 7.5 Ma, implies over‐water dispersal under the prevailing model of Isthmus of Panama formation, but also accords with overland migration under a model of earlier formation.

Seasonal distributions and sources of low molecular weight dicarboxylic acids, ω-oxocarboxylic acids, pyruvic acid, α-dicarbonyls and fatty acids in ambient aerosols from subtropical Okinawa in the western Pacific Rim

Environmental context Water-soluble dicarboxylic acids and related compounds are ubiquitous in atmospheric aerosols. They are abundantly emitted from Asian countries and transported to the Pacific Ocean. During the long-range transport, photochemical processing modifies organic aerosols. We conducted a 1-year observation of diacids and related compounds at Okinawa Island, an outflow region of the Asian Continent, to clarify their sources and photochemical aging. Abstract Ambient aerosol samples were collected for 1 year at Okinawa Island, Japan, and were analysed for water-soluble dicarboxylic acids, oxoacids, α-dicarbonyls and fatty acids to better understand biogenic v. anthropogenic sources and the formation–transformation of organic aerosols during long-range atmospheric transport. Here, we report seasonal variations of diacids and related compounds in Okinawa. We found a predominance of oxalic acid (C2) followed by malonic (C3) and succinic (C4) acid. Total diacids and oxoacids maximised in spring when air masses originated from the Asian Continent with westerly winds. In contrast, phthalic acid (Ph), a tracer of anthropogenic sources, peaked in winter. We found an increased C3/C4 ratio in summer, suggesting an enhanced photochemical aging of organic aerosols. The average ratio of total diacid-C/total carbon (TC) (5.4%) is higher than that (3.1%) from the East China Sea, suggesting that Okinawa aerosols are more aged than East Asian aerosols but less aged compared to those from the remote Pacific including tropics (8.8%). Biogenic short-chain fatty acids and azelaic acid (C9), the latter is a specific oxidation product of unsaturated fatty acids, maximised in summer, whereas higher plant-derived long-chain fatty acids maximised in spring. This study demonstrates that the ambient aerosols in Okinawa are strongly influenced by the Asian outflow in winter and spring and by biogenic organic matter in summer and spring. Enhanced contribution of oxalic acid to aerosol TC in spring suggests that Okinawa organic aerosols are mainly produced in East Asia and photochemically transformed during the transport.