Western Armenia Research Articles

THE REFERENCE TO THE CONSEQUENCES OF THE ARMENIAN GENOCIDE IN THE FATES OF THE HEROES FROM SASUN IN M. GALSHOYAN’S COLLECTION OF THE STORIES “THE CLOUDS OF MOUNTAIN MARUTA”. “UNCLE TOROS” AND “THATTON”

Mushegh Galshoyan as a distinguished figure of the newest period of the Armenian literature, depicts the fates of the Sasun dwellers who had to flee from Western Armenia to Eastern Armenia during the Armenian Genocide in his story collection "Clouds of Mountain Maruta". People were united by one common goal: they settled down and built houses, but they did not lose the hope of returning home, they missed their country. Each hero of a story, living in a new reality, uprooted from the motherland and settled in a new land, keeps memories of Yergir alive. In the deep layers of each character‘s minds, those memories become so real and vivid that they unconsciously want to go back to Yergir, with the greatest urge to complete their unfinished life in the realm of dreams and illusions.

Episodes From The History Of The Activities Of Ptotestant Preachers In Western Armenia (End of the 19th century – beginning of the 20th century)

Beginning with the 14th century, Catholic and Protestant preachers appeared in Ottoman Turkey. However, unlike the representatives of other nations, the propaganda of the new doctrine was accepted mainly by the Armenians, which was conditioned by the awful socio-political, economic and spiritual situation of Armenia. Protestant preachers used the plight of Christians, particularly Armenians, for the realization of their religious-political goals and interests2. They were the ones who for the first time encouraged the idea among Armenians that Europe and the Pope could support the liberation of Armenia, but only on the condition of accepting Catholicism or Protestantism. It was under their direct influence that the Armenian Catholicos traveled to a number of European countries in the 16th-17th centuries. From the beginning, the Protestant preachers were of the opinion that the Armenian Church operated applying an “idolatrous” system3. However, after long contacts with the people in the Western Armenian reality, their mentality gradually changed and they became closer to the Armenian Apostolic Church. Starting from the 50s of the 19th century, the Armenian Protestants were recognized as a separate community by the Ottoman state and a separate diocese was established for them. After the Protestant preachers settled in Constantinople, they started to open branches in the provinces as well4. One such branch was also established in Van.

The Foundations Of A Nation’s Existence In Maghakia Ormanyan’s Arguments

It is an obvious philosophical truth that people turn to eternal, unchanging values when they find themselves in uncertain, crisis or declining situations during historical and political scandals, as well as in the periods preceding violent cultural-civilizational movements, when in the search for new value orientations, the foundations of national existence, the universal essence of existence, universal principles of existence, reflections on human existence, self-interpretation and worldview become primary. Discussions of the problem of practical philosophy are also activated on the basis of theoretical concepts. These universal patterns are also characteristic of the Armenian reality. In particular, in the process of searching for possible ways of solving the Armenian Question in Western Armenia at the end of the 19th century, the scientific and philosophical analyzes of the genealogy of the Armenian nation, the factors of preserving the national identity, and the legality and justice of the reform of the political existence were important.

The Mudros Armistice. The Armenian Question and British Diplomacy

The Ottoman Empire came out of World War I defeated. The representative of Great Britain signed the armistice agreement with the Turks in the port of Mudros on the Greek island of Lemnos. With that, the Turks were subject to capitulation. The terms of the Mudros armistice also had an impact on the Armenian Question. During the war, the Turks organized the Armenian Genocide and the Armenian territories under Ottoman rule (Cilicia and 7 provinces of Western Armenia) were completely ethnically cleansed. Out of 2.5 million Ottoman Armenians, 1.5 million were killed and 1 million became refugees. The task of this study is to demonstrate how Cilicia was immediately liberated from the Turks by the agreement of Mudros and the Armenians were able to return to their homeland, but Western Armenia was not liberated, which led to the emergence of the Kemalist nationalist movement and the failure of the Armenian Question. The article covers the negative consequences of the conditions of the Mudros armistice in the failure of the Armenian Question. The problem has never been considered from this point of view by historiography. Analyzing facts, the article shows that it was due to the intrigues of British imperialist diplomacy, which was directed primarily against France. However, it also aimed to block Russia’s way from the Caucasus to the south. The British tried to achieve their far-reaching goals through another power – the United States. The work mostly refers to archival materials and documents, also drawing on some studies related to the topic. The article is built on comparative and critical analysis, observing the principles of objectivity and historicity. Many representatives of Western and Russian historiography have addressed the Franco-British contradictions over the Ottoman heritage. Armenian historians have also referred to some aspects of the issue in question. In the study, facts previously published for different purposes are presented in a new way. The problem was set to show the influence of the British far-reaching aims on the Armenian Question.

Օսմանյան բանկի գրավումն ու Խանասորի արշավանքը «Դրօշակ» պարբերականի էջերում / The Capture of the Ottoman Bank and the Campagn of Khanasor on the Magazine “Droshak”

In the history of the people’s liberation struggle of Western Armenia, significant place is taken by such offensive actions as the capture of the Ottoman bank and the campagn of Khanasor. Many authors referred to thess issues, but in the article the struggle is presented according to the data of the magazine “Droshak”, which reflected the events of those years with the greatest accuracy, since its information was supplemented by letters from direct participants and luminaries of that struggle, written under fresh impressions in the turmoil of events. This circumstance is of great importance, fruition since the memoirs of the liberation figure were written years events and many detailed were missing. “Droshak” is designed to fill this gap. The organizer of these offensives, the Dashnaktsutyun party, hoped with these actions to attract the attention of Evropean states to the Armenian reforms, which never came to realizing.

Геноцид армян как преступление, нарушающее нормы международного права (историко-правовой аспект)

The purpose of the study is to substantiate the fact that political genocide is one of the most serious crimes throughout the entire path of human development. To achieve this goal, it is necessary to solve the following task – to present and analyze the stages and manifestations of the policy of cultural genocide carried out by the Young Turks in Western Armenia and other Armenian-populated areas of the Ottoman Empire, and then by the Kemals in the Republic of Armenia.

An Insight into Translation Trends (with Special Reference to Russian and Armenian Translations of “A Christmas Carol”)

The article presents a comparative analysis of the cultural transfer of Dickens' novel “A Christmas Carol” in Armenian and Russian translations. The main objective of the article is to elucidate the distinctive characteristics of literary translation through the paradigm of cultural transfer, as well as the prevailing translation trends in Russian and Armenian national culture. In the Armenian literary environment of the late 19th century, British verbal art exerted a notable influence, precisely due to the influence of Russian literature and the intermediary role of Russian translations. The evaluation of Dickens' heritage as a literary classic, especially in Eastern Armenia, is first realised through the prism of its popularity in the Russian literary environment (in this context, significant textual modifications are made due to the different linguistic–cultural usage). At the same time, quantitative and qualitative studies have demonstrated the existence of Armenian translations or abridged versions (in Western Armenia and other centres of the Armenian diaspora, such as Athens and Beirut) of “A Christmas Carol”, created from the original text with apparent contextual alterations based on the influence of Armenian national specificity.

Mass Destruction of Armenian Cultural Heritage during the Hamidian Massacres (1894-1896)

The policy of destruction of the Armenian cultural heritage in the Ottoman Empire began with the conquest of Western Armenia and has continued until the present day. Over the centuries, Armenian culture, as part of the Empire’s Christian culture, has either been destroyed spontaneously, in vast swathes or undergone various manifestations of neutralisationby various Turkish regimes. The first part of this article will outline the approaches made by Genocide study theorists concerning the origin and definition of the term “cultural genocide” existing until today, including the attempts at revising or even re-naming it. The second part outlines the chronology of Armenian cultural heritage destruction. A detailed description of the policy of demolition of the Armenian cultural heritage during Hamidian massacres as a manifestation of vandalism or cultural genocide will also be presented.

The Problem Of The Return Of Western Armenian Refugees In 1902

Part of the Western Armenians who survived the mass massacres organized by Abdul Hamid II in 1890s was forced to migrate and settle down around the world. Only 50,000 refugees found shelter in Eastern Armenia.1 The latter survived owing to various funds. However, aid and alleviating the condition of the Western Armenian refugees to some extent did not solve the difficult problem of their survival. It was necessary to take steps to return them to their place of birth, which was a vital necessity for the Western Armenians. The catastrophic decrease in the number of the Armenian people had a very negative impact on the demography of Western Armenia, which was an important part of the policy adopted by the sultan. That is why hundreds of depopulated settlements were inhabited by Muslim tribes. Under the name of “muhajirs” (refugees), they settled down in Western Armenia and Cilicia.

Discussion Of Armenian National-Political Problems In The Periodical “The Fight” (1897-1901)

In 1887 the theoreticians of the Hunchakyan party, which was founded in Geneva, unlike other parties, believed that after the liberation of the Armenian people from Turkish and then Russian rule, a socialist social order should be established in democratic Armenia. Going ahead of the natural development of events, Hunchakyans were engaged in propaganda of socialism in Western Armenia in the late 1880s - early 1890s.

Մերձավոր Արեւելքի ամերիկյան նպաստամատույցի որբանոցներն ըստ Մեծ եղեռնը վերապրածների հուշապատումների

There are a lot of episodes of testimonies about the collection of orphans, orphanages, and guardianship of children in the series of memoirs "Survivors of the Armenian Genocide". Against this background, the lion's share of this evidence relates to Amerkom's trusteeship. In addition to developing long-term activities in the city of Alexandropol, Amerkom created a network of branches of shelters in Western Armenia, where a large number of Armenians lived. One of these orphanages was established in Sivaz and Kajuni Karageozyan writes about this in his memoirs. During the First World War, the Turkish government founded orphanages to appease society. Mihran Ghazaryan, who was deported from Bitlis, lived in the Alexandropol orphanage of Amerkom prior to his adoption. Hovhannes Trchunyan-Hovhannisyan worked in the orphanage at the Cossack post. He had miraculously escaped from the massacre before that and ended up in the Erznga orphanage, and after that - in the Erzrum orphanage. Methods and materials: We have used comparative-historical research, survey, combination, inductive and deductive methods.The article is based on the series of memoirs "Survivors of the Armenian Genocide" and analysis of materials available in the literature.

Seseli kurdistanicum (Apiaceae), a new species from Van Province, eastern Turkey

A new species, Seseli kurdistanicum Lyskov and Fırat (Apiaceae), is described from the Van Province, eastern Turkey. Molecular phylogenetic analysis of nrITS/ETS recognized the new species as closely related to Seseli leptocladum from western Armenia. Morphologically, these two species are also closely related. However, S. kurdistanicum differs from S. leptocladum in the petiole length (absent or very short about 0.5 cm versus 3–5 cm), shape of radical leaves (ovate versus oblong), umbel diameter (up to 11 cm with ascending rays versus 2–3 cm with erect rays), number of rays (4–10, usually 6–7 versus 1–6, usually 2–4), and ray length (up to 7 cm, usually 3–5 versus up to 3 cm).

Արեվմտյան Հայաստանում բարենորոգումների իրագործման հանգամանքները 1913 թ. (Գեվորգ Ե Սուրենյանցի աթոռակալության տարիներին) / Circumstances of the implementation of reforms in Western Armeniain 1913 (during the patriarchy of Gevorg Surenyants)

The article presents the efforts of the Catholicos of All Armenians to carry out reforms in Western Armenia in 1913. The primary basis for the methodological study of the work was letters and reports by figures of theat period by the methodology of comparison, comparison and analysis of the materials contained in them, an attempt was made again to identify the main motives of the Armenian question, which is still actual relevant and has not received its solution. In 1908 after the abolition of Abdul-Hamidian despotic regime and the hold of powers by Young Turks the pursuits and cruelties against Western Armenians did not cease. Beginning from the Аpril in 1909 the Turks organized The Massacre of the Armenians of Cilikia. of Catholicos of All Armenians Gevorg V, who played a great role in the discovery of the Armenian question in 1912 receives information about the massacre of Armenians in Western Armenia from various sources. Catholicos appealed to various state and public European and Russian statesmens and figures with a request to prevent the massacre of Western Armenians. He tries to force European and Russian figures, as well as Russian and European ambassadors of Constantinople, to force Turkey to carry out reforms in Western Armenia. The Catholicos is making great efforts to gain the favor of the Russian emperor. To this end, he establishes correspondence with the governor of the Caucasus Vorontsov-Dashkov. On the other hand, the Catholicos directs appeals to European statesmen. He thinks that reforms should be implemented by Russia and controlled by Europe. In the end, the program is being drawn up, but because of the outbreak of the world War, it is not being implemented But the European countries and the Russian government guided by their own interests were limited only to diplomatic steps and promises.

From the history of Behbudyan dynasty in Georgia

Thus, summarizing the key issues in the history of the Behbudian dynasty in the 17th century, we can state: The combination of Armenian and Georgian sources allows us to roughly outline the migration of the Behbudians to Georgia. Therefore, it turns out that the kin of Behbudians migrated to Georgia from Western Armenia, probably from Shirak region. Another branch of this dynasty continued its activity in Persia, where representatives of the Behbud family are mentioned as being from Georgia. Accordingly, there is a high probability that the Behbudians who settled in Persia migrated from Georgia. In the 17th century, in Georgia the kin of Khoja Behbud, who was the manager of the mint of the Georgian court, carried out an active role. He and his sons maintained close ties with St. Etchmiadzin and stood out with their donations. The successors of Khoja Behbud held high military positions, both in the Georgian court and in Persia. Moreover, already in the 18th century, his descendants occupied the position of the mayor of Tpghis. All published sources regarding the denominational affiliation of the Behbudyan family state that during the period under study, they were steadfast followers of the Armenian Church. In Tpghis, they started building a church, according to the 17th-century manuscript records, the representatives of this kin were the patrons of most of the Armenian churches in Tpghis. The examination of the sources showed that the initiative to build St. Stepanos convent belongs not Khoja Behbud's son, but his grandson Melik Ashkarbek and one of the sons of Ashxarbek, Melik Agha.

V. Davtyan as the Interpreter of Western Armenian Poetry of the Beginning of the 20th century

The results of the research allow us to outline the following conclusions; In the history of Armenian poetry V. Davtyan newly evaluates and underlines the importance of Western Armenian lyric poetry of the beginning of the 20th century, which differs with its high artistry, intertwinement of the national and universal and upgrades Armenian literature to the level of the world literature. The articles of V. Davtyan reveal him as a literary critic of Western Armenian poetry. They illustrate the philosophical-aesthetic, theoretical understandings and principles of the theorist, which clearly define the aesthetic creed and the worldview of the writer. Davtyan's articles are the generalizations of profound analysis distinguished with subtle observations, brief and accurate descriptions, high literary value and relevance. The articles are differentiated with a stunning imagery based on individual and national dramas. Davtyan supports the continuous reverberation of the classical poetry created in Western Armenia from generation to generation. The Armenian critic reveals the artistic value and the hidden beauty of the tiny masterpieces of Western Armenian lyrical poetry of the beginning of the century, The critic touches upon the question of the identity of the Western Armenian poet, his national image and socio-political activities. The personal tragedy of the Western Armenian poets was accompanied by their creative accomplishments which acquired universal significance. The literary greatness of the Western Armenian poet is measured by his individualism, national and universal perception, love and understanding. Davtyan in his research juxtaposes the ideal and the reality. The critic focuses on the essence of the Armenian writer, aiming at preservation of the literary traditions and intertwining them with the modern periods.

ՀԱՅԵՐԻ ԷԹՆԻԿ ԶՏՈՒՄՆԵՐԻ ԵՎ ՑԵՂԱՍՊԱՆԱԿԱՆ ՔԱՂԱՔԱԿԱՆՈՒԹՅԱՆ ԻՐԱԳՈՐԾՄԱՆ ՓՈՒԼԵՐՆ ԱՐԵՎԵԼՅԱՆ ԱՅՍՐԿՈՎԿԱՍՈՒՄ (XI-XX ԴԴ․) (Դ ՄԱՍ)

The aim of the article is to present the motives and implementation stages of ethnic cleansing and genocidal policy perpetrated towards the indigenous Armenian population during the 11th-20th centuries in the Eastern Cis-Caucasus – in the territory stretching from the Kur Valley to the Apsheron Peninsula, on the basis of various primary sources (archival documents, statistical materials, periodical press, theme related literature). The work is written by a combined examination of facts, applying the principles of historical investigation and historical-comparative analysis. The level of reliability and validity of the sources through their comprehensive study has been verified. Through the combination of facts the following phases of the history of the main issue are presented: the policy of ethnic cleansing and genocide of Armenians in the Eastern Cis-Caucasus were still implemented in the 11th-18th centuries when the region regularly appeared under the invasions and dominion of various conquering nomadic tribes (Turk-Seljuks, Mongol-Tatars, Tamerlane, nomadic Turkmen tribes of Kara-Koyunlu and Ak-Koyunlu, Kizilbash invasions followed by the Turkish-Persian wars, Sunni Lezgins, invasions of Nader Shah and Agha Mohammad Khan). As a result, some part of the Armenian population was deported and left native lands or forcedly accepted the Muslim religion of the conquerers. The next phase of ethnic cleansing and atrocities was the period of the Armenian-Tatar clashes (1905-1906). Later, the policy of ethnic cleansing and genocide was implemented at state level already during the Musavat regime of the artificial “Azerbaijan” formation (1918-1920), and finally during the Soviet regime (1920-1990). The article substantiates the fact that the indigenous Armenian population of the region was subjected to ethnic cleansing and genocide in its cradle, just as the Young Turks carried out the extermination of the Western Armenians in 1915-1916 in Western Armenia. Therefore, that policy should be qualified as the continuation and a constituent part of the Armenian Genocide, because the Armenian Genocide with its geographical coverage (from Western Armenia and other Armenian-inhabited territories of the Ottoman Empire to Baku) was a consequence of the implementation of the complete program of Pan-Turkism. There are numerous references to the issue in the historical literature, though the comprehensive study of ethnic cleansing and genocidal policies of Armenians in the Eastern Cis-Caucasus – in the territory stretching from the Kur Valley to the Apsheron Peninsula, has not been the subject of a separate study.

ՊՂՆՁԱԳՈՐԾՈՒԹՅՈՒՆԸ ԱՐԵՎՄՏՅԱՆ ՀԱՅԱՍՏԱՆՈՒՄ ԵՎ ՓՈՔՐ ԱՍԻԱՅԻ ՀԱՅԱԲՆԱԿ ՎԱՅՐԵՐՈՒՄ 19-20-ՐԴ ԴԱՐԱՍԿԶԲԻՆ (ՊԱՏՄԱ - ԱԶԳԱԳՐԱԿԱՆ ԱԿՆԱՐԿ) / COPPER - SMITH’S ART IN WESTERN ARMENIA AND ARMENIAN-POPULATED AREAS OF ASIA MINOR IN THE 19TH - EARLY 20TH CENTURY (HISTORICAL - ETHNOGRAPHICAL SURVEY)

In the 19th - early 20th century, the Armenian copper craft and trade developed in Western Armenia and adjacent Armenian-populated areas. Large handicraft centers were formed in Tokhat, Yerznka, and Karin. The work describes the activity and history of development of these centers.

Очерки С.М. Городецкого о Западной Армении как структурно-семантическое единство (на материале публикаций в газетах «Русское слово» и «Кавказское слово»)

The article examines S.M. Gorodetsky’s essays published in the Moscow newspaper “Russian Word” and the Tiflis newspaper “Caucasian Word” during the poet’s stay on the Caucasian Front in 1916–1917. It is noted that this group of texts contains information about Gorodetsky’s travels, colleagues, humanitarian activities in Western Armenia and can be used as a source of information about his biography during this period. It is shown the relative chronology of the events described in the essays and their connection with the poet’s three visits to the city of Van. The hypothesis is put forward that, despite publication in various periodicals (central and regional newspapers), Gorodetsky’s essays have a number of integral features and represent a structural and semantic unity. It is shown that the texts under study have a cross-cutting plot related to the poet’s travels and his work in the Union of Cities, common events and characters. It is revealed that Gorodetsky’s essays, as well as travel notes, are the pretexts of his artistic works, in particular, the book of poems “The Angel of Armenia” and the unfinished novel “The Gardens of Semiramis”. It is concluded that Gorodetsky interpreted this group of newspaper publications as a metatext, similar to an artistic cycle.

A Ride Through Western Asia

In his memories C.Bigham presents his travel notes across Western Armenia in the Summer of 1895. Here the reader could find remarkable notes regarding the attitude of Turks, Kurds and others toward Armenian atrocities which took place during the reign of Sultan Abdul Hamid II. The Editorial board presents extracted passages of the book which describe Mr Bigham’s journey from Erzurum to the east, until Russian-held territories of Armenia (Chapters VII and VIII, pp.56-75).

Pilgrimage in Tayk Ashkharh

Thus, having comprehensively studied the historical process and the current state of the monuments of the Tayk, we came to the following conclusions. The current competent authorities of Turkey, cooperating with their Georgian colleagues with the involvement of relevant specialists, restore several famous Armenian monumental monuments of Tayk in accordance with the Chalcedonian Canon. Under the guise of restoration, by cutting out fragments of inscriptions confirming Armenian authenticity, native Armenian monuments are presented as Georgian heritage. Some monuments have been vandalized and in the absence of proper attention, years later they will not even leave a trace. For a significant part of the Armenians, pilgrimages to Western Armenia are limited only to visiting the central districts, mostly ignoring the Armenian Taуk. Proceeding from the above, we believe that the most important condition for the formation of a patriot citizen continues to be an educated person who knows and appreciates his history and religion, one of the best ways of which is pilgrimage and exploring even the most remote places of the historical homeland from the main routes. Therefore, the problem of pilgrimage, research and constant monitoring of particularly remote, little-known and disputed parts of the lost homeland is now relevant and requires concrete solutions.