Western And Central Pacific Fisheries Commission Research Articles

Pacific tuna update: 20th Meeting of the Western and Central Pacific Fisheries Commission

The Western and Central Pacific Fisheries Commission (WCPFC), the governing body for the world’s largest tuna fishery, held its 20th annual Commission meeting in Rarotonga, Cook Islands, in December 2023. This commentary provides an overview of the meeting and its outcomes. Revisions to the tropical tuna measure were the main focus of member states’ attention, alongside the determination of an interim Target Reference Point for South Pacific albacore, compliance monitoring reporting, and updates to measures and harvest strategies for Northern Stocks. The members were able to comprehensively address the management of the tropical tuna species and made progress on harvest strategies. Harvest strategies are pre-determined management actions that would reduce the reliance on short-term management decisions and achieve a long-term management framework. However, other important issues, such as developing an allocation framework, remained unresolved despite the member's commitment to start developing such a framework at this year’s meeting. Emerging shifts in meeting dynamics were observed and may signal changes in how the WCPFC operates moving forward.

The Use of the GWPCA-MGWR Model for Studying Spatial Relationships between Environmental Variables and Longline Catches of Yellowfin Tunas

The yellowfin tuna represents a significant fishery resource in the Pacific Ocean. Its resource endowment status and spatial variation mechanisms are intricately influenced by marine environments, particularly under varying climate events. Consequently, investigating the spatial variation patterns of dominant environmental factors under diverse climate conditions, and understanding the response of yellowfin tuna catch volume based on the spatial heterogeneity among these environmental factors, presents a formidable challenge. This paper utilizes comprehensive 5°×5° yellowfin tuna longline fishing data and environmental data, including seawater temperature and salinity, published by the Western and Central Pacific Fisheries Commission (WCPFC) and the Inter-American Tropical Tuna Commission (IATTC) for the period 2000–2021 in the Pacific Ocean. In conjunction with the Niño index, a multiscale geographically weighted regression model based on geographically weighted principal component analysis (GWPCA-MGWR) and spatial association between zones (SABZ) is employed for this study. The results indicate the following: (1) The spatial distribution of dominant environmental factors affecting the catch of Pacific yellowfin tuna is primarily divided into two types: seawater temperature dominates in the western Pacific Ocean, while salinity dominates in the eastern Pacific Ocean. When El Niño occurs, the area with seawater temperature as the dominant environmental factor in the western Pacific Ocean further extends eastward, and the water layers where the dominant environmental factors are located develop to deeper depths; when La Niña occurs, there is a clear westward expansion in the area with seawater salinity as the dominant factor in the eastern Pacific Ocean. This change in the spatial distribution pattern of dominant factors is closely related to the movement of the position of the warm pool and cold tongue under ENSO events. (2) The areas with a higher catch of Pacific yellowfin tuna are spatially associated with the dominant environmental factor of mid-deep seawater temperature (105–155 m temperature) to a greater extent than other factors, the highest correlation exceeds 70%, and remain relatively stable under different ENSO events. The formation of this spatial association pattern is related to the vertical movement of yellowfin tuna as affected by subsurface seawater temperature. (3) The GWPCA-MGWR model can fully capture the differences in environmental variability among subregions in the Pacific Ocean under different climatic backgrounds, intuitively reflect the changing areas and influencing boundaries from a macro perspective, and has a relatively accurate prediction on the trend of yellowfin tuna catch in the Pacific Ocean.

Spatio-temporal variability of fishing habitat suitability to tuna purse seine fleet in the Western and Central Pacific Ocean

Understanding the spatial distribution of fishing activity is important for ecosystem-based fisheries management.The dynamic vessel trajectory information provided by Automatic Identification System (AIS) together with local remote ocean environment data, provide an opportunity for new technologies to enable improvements in fisheries management.The spatio-temporal and variability to tuna purse seine fleet suitable fishing were evaluated based on fishing effort from AIS by constructing an integrated habitat suitability index (HSI), which weight of variables were determined with boosted regression trees (BRT) model. The results show that the fishing activity tuna purse-seine fleet and catch data from the Western and Central Pacific Fisheries Commission (WCPFC) have the same spatial distribution.The tuna purse seine fleet operation concentrate in EEZ area of the Pacifc Island countries and has seasonal environmental preferences. The fishing habitat suitability can be characterized by a few environmental factors. The HSI model had good capacity to predict habitat suitability to tuna purse seine fleet for mostly catch and fishing effort located in the suitable area. The suitable fishing areas showed significant seasonal changes and low utilization of the available environmentally suitable fishing habitat in each month. The most stable suitable area located in the New Guinea Offshore latitudinal region, may be experiencing high tuna purse-seine fishing pressure throughout the year. The research could help to improve the scientific and effective management of distant water fisheries under limited regulatory capacity.

Scalar politics in transboundary fisheries management: The Western and Central Pacific Fisheries Commission as an eco-scalar fix for South Pacific albacore tuna management

Scholars and policymakers have debated the correct scales for managing and conserving ocean resources for decades. To address the conservation and management of highly migratory fish species, like tuna, countries have established regional fisheries management organisations (RFMOs) to regulate transboundary fisheries at the scale of oceanic regions. However, in the Western and Central Pacific Ocean region, countries have expanded their tuna management efforts to encompass multiple and overlapping intergovernmental institutions operating at regional and subregional scales. Scholars have argued that this proliferation of institutions across scales—including the development of the region’s RFMO, the Western and Central Pacific Fisheries Commission (WCPFC)—has strengthened transboundary tuna management. However, while scholars focus on the successes of scalar dynamics in the tropical purse seine fishery, less attention has been devoted to the smaller and less valuable southern longline fishery, where management progress has stalled. Management inaction at multiple scales has impacted the status of the fishery’s target stock, South Pacific albacore, and domestic fishing and processing industries in Pacific Island countries and territories. This article employs a scalar politics lens to consider why multi-scalar efforts to improve southern longline fishery management have produced no decisive change in management outcomes. Analysing over a decade of management debate and subregional institutional development, the article argues that the WCPFC has operated as an ‘eco-scalar fix’ in managing the southern longline fishery. Through a combination of ecological and political factors unique to the fishery, this eco-scalar fix has enabled distant water fishing countries to locate political authority with the WCPFC while shifting the responsibility for management reform onto the subregional efforts of Pacific Island countries. This case complicates and contributes to debates concerning scale in transboundary fisheries management by concluding that the effects of scalar politics on management outcomes are uneven and the product of asymmetrical, interest-driven dynamics among countries seeking to advance their interests in industrial fisheries.

The Environmental Niche of the Tuna Purse Seine Fleet in the Western and Central Pacific Ocean Based on Different Fisheries Data

Understanding the spatial pattern of human fishing activity is very important for fisheries resource monitoring and spatial management. The environmental preferences of tropical tuna purse seine fleet in the Western and Central Pacific Ocean (WCPO) were constructed and compared at different spatial scales based on the fishing effort (FE) data from the available automatic identification system (AIS) and commercial fishery data compiled from the Western and Central Pacific Fisheries Commission (WCPFC), using maximum entropy (MaxEnt) methods. The MaxEnt models were fitted with FE and commercial fishery data and remote sensing environmental data. Our results showed that the area under the curve (AUC) value each month based on the commercial fishery data (1°) and FE at 0.25° and 0.5° spatial scales was greater than 0.8. The AUC values each month based on the FE data at a 1° scale ranged from 0.775 to 0.829. The AUC values based on commercial fishing data at the 1° scale were comparable to the model results based on FE data at the 0.5° scale and inferior to the model results based on FE data at the 0.25° scales. Overall, the sea surface temperature (SST), temperature at 100 metres (T100), oxygen concentration at 100 metres (O100) and total primary production (PP) had the greatest influence on the distribution of the purse seine tuna fleet. The oxygen concentration at 200 metres (O200), distance to shore (DSH), dissolved oxygen (Dox), EKE, mixed layer depth (Mld), sea surface salinity (SSS), salinity at 100 metres (S100) and salinity at 200 metres (S200) had moderate influences, and other environmental variables had little influence. The suitable habitat areas varied in response to environmental conditions. The purse seine tuna fleet was mostly present at locations where the SST, T100, O100, O200 and PP were 28–30 °C, 27–29 °C, 150–200 mmol/m3 and 5–10 mg/m−3, respectively. The MaxEnt models enable the integration of AIS data and high-resolution environmental data from satellite remote sensing to describe the spatiotemporal distribution of the tuna purse seine fishery and the influence of environmental variables on the distribution, and can provide forecasts for fishing ground distributions based on future remote sensing environmental data.

Enhancing cooperative responses by regional fisheries management organisations to climate-driven redistribution of tropical Pacific tuna stocks

Climate change is predicted to alter the distributions of tropical tuna stocks in the Pacific Ocean. Recent modelling projects significant future shifts in tuna biomass from west to east, and from national jurisdictions to high seas areas. As the distributions of these stocks change, the relevant regional fisheries management organisations (RFMOs)—the Western and Central Pacific Fisheries Commission (WCPFC) and the Inter-American Tropical Tuna Commission (IATTC)—will need to develop an expanded framework for cooperation and collaboration to fulfil their conservation and management responsibilities under international law. The key elements of a possible expanded framework for cooperation can be developed, and fundamental areas for collaboration identified, by applying and adapting principles established in the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea, the United Nations Fish Stocks Agreement, and the constituent instruments of the RFMOs themselves. Our analysis reveals a wide range of important issues requiring cooperation, and three clear priorities. First, a formal mechanism for cooperation is needed to enable effective and efficient decision-making and action by the two RFMOs on key issues. Second, further cooperation is required in scientific research and modelling to better understand the biology and distributions of Pacific tuna stocks and how they will respond to climate change, and to inform stock assessments and harvest strategies. Third, the RFMOs must cooperate to define appropriate limits on fishing for each stock in a way that ensures they are compatible across the two organisations, taking into account their different members and management regimes.

Evaluation of the Impacts of Climate Change on Albacore Distribution in the South Pacific Ocean by Using Ensemble Forecast

South Pacific albacore (Thunnus alalunga) is a highly migratory tuna species widely distributed throughout 0°–50°S in the South Pacific Ocean. Climate-driven changes in the oceanographic condition largely influence the albacore distribution, relative abundance, and the consequent availability by the longline fisheries. In this study, we examined the habitat preference and spatial distribution of south Pacific albacore using a generalized additive model fitted to the longline fisheries data from the Western and Central Pacific Fisheries Commission (WCPFC) and Inter-American Tropical Tuna Commission (IATTC). Future projections of albacore distributions (2020, 2050, and 2080) were predicted by using an ensemble modeling approach produced from various atmosphere-ocean general circulation models and anthropogenic emission scenarios (i.e., RCP 4.5 and RCP 8.5) to reduce the uncertainty in the projected changes. The dissolved oxygen concentration at 100 meters (DO100) and sea surface temperature (SST) were found to have the most substantial effects on the potential albacore distribution that the albacore preferred in the habitat with DO100 of 0.2–0.25 mmol L–1 and SST of 13–22°C. This study suggested that the northern boundary of albacore preferred habitat is expected to shift southward by about 5° latitudes, and the relative abundance is expected to gradually increase in the area south of 30°S from 2020 to 2080 for both RCP scenarios, especially with a higher degree of change for the RCP 8.5. Moreover, the albacore relative abundance is projected to decrease in the most exclusive economic zones (EEZs) of countries and territories in the South Pacific Ocean by 2080. These findings could lend important implications on the availability of tuna resources to the fisheries and subsequent evaluation of tuna conservation and management under climate change.

Common but differentiated rights and responsibilities in tuna fisheries management

AbstractThe UN Law of the Sea Convention (LOSC) and one of the implementing agreements of the Convention—the UN Fish Stocks Agreement (UNFSA)—mandates all states to cooperate in the management of highly migratory and straddling fish stocks. In doing so, the UNFSA specifies that the special requirements of developing states need to be taken into account. To date, except in the Western and Central Pacific Fisheries Commission (WCPFC), there is no formal mechanism to identify these differential responsibilities in tuna regional fisheries management organizations (RFMOs). Although some conservation and management measures exempt small‐scale and artisanal fishing vessels, power imbalances within RFMOs tend to favour the interests of more developed and larger distant water fishing nations over those of small developing coastal states. To facilitate the implementation of differentiated responsibilities as mandated in UNFSA, in this study we develop a three‐step framework that could be applied in the case of new conservation and management measure proposals. The framework has also been tested based on two developing countries and compared with a developed state in the Indian Ocean Tuna Commission and the adopted resolutions in 2019. To facilitate better transparency and equitable decision‐making processes across RFMOs, this framework could be adapted based on member states' fisheries management objectives and target and non‐target species.

Mapping interests in the tuna fisheries of the Western and Central Pacific Ocean

Fisheries for highly migratory fish stocks are complex, featuring multiple species targeted by different gear types across several national jurisdictions and high seas areas. They require effective cooperation to manage sustainably, typically through a regional fisheries management organisation (RFMO). However, diverse interests in different species and gear types among participating states and fishing entities, many of which are developing, mean that cooperation can be difficult to achieve, with severe consequences for fish stocks, the economies of states with an interest in those stocks, and the livelihoods of communities that depend on them. The Western and Central Pacific Fisheries Commission (WCPFC) manages some of the world's largest tuna fisheries and exemplifies these challenges. We argue that a prerequisite for effective cooperation is an understanding of the interests of each participant in each species and gear type to ensure that conservation and management measures take into account the differential impacts on each one, including whether measures place a disproportionate burden on developing states. This paper uses catch value data for four key tuna species of the WCPFC convention area to illustrate the diversity of interests of participants in these fisheries, with a view to enhancing delegations' understanding of those interests and to inform more effective cooperation.

Managing Bigeye Tuna in the Western and Central Pacific Ocean

The Western and Central Pacific Fisheries Commission (WCPFC) is responsible for managing highly migratory species in the Western and Central Pacific Ocean (WCPO), and has been interested in managing bigeye tuna as stock assessments prior to 2017 indicated that the stock was experiencing overfishing. This paper provides some background on the primary fisheries catching bigeye tuna in the WCPO, describes the various policies within the conservation and management measures adopted by the WCPFC, discusses the effectiveness of such policies, and concludes with some suggestions for future policies for consideration.

Tuna management in action: assessing the contribution of the WCPFC to the SDGs

ABSTRACTThe tuna fishery in the Western and Central Pacific ranks among the most valuable fisheries in the world and is an important source of income and livelihood in this region. This fishery is managed by the Western and Central Pacific Fisheries Commission (WCPFC), which has the important task to promote sustainable fisheries practices in this area. The sustainable use of marine resources is the objective of one of the 17 United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), a global initiative which seeks to achieve a sustainable future. This commentary focuses on the 16th regular session of the Commission of the WCPFC, which convened in December 2019 and aims to link topics which were discussed at this meeting with the objectives of the SDGs.

Potential risks of tuna fishing conducted in Indonesia’s waters and its impact on tuna and shark

Bigeye tuna (BET), yellowfin tuna (YFT) and skipjack tuna stocks in the Pacific Ocean, in general, are underfished. However, according to Western and Central Pacific Fisheries Commission (WCPFC) who is mandated to assess the fishing impact on tuna and bycatch, the fishing impact on BET juveniles (including from Indonesia) were identified as high level impact. Productivity-susceptibility analysis (PSA) was used to assess the risk of tuna and sharks. The objectives of this study were to identify the types of tuna fisheries operated in Indonesias water (FMAs 713-715) which harm tuna and sharks species. Result shows that tuna was mainly caught by purse seine, pole and line, and longline. Purse seine fishing has a higher impact than the pole and line and longline fishing. Blue shark, hammerhead shark and silky shark in particular whale shark were at risk due to purse seine fishing, without proper management. Information regarding their niches and seasonal migrating patterns are required for further studies.

Drifting Fish Aggregating Devices (FADs)

Abstract This article describes the proliferation of drifting fish aggregating devices (FADs) and analyses subsequent legal questions that arise for fisheries and marine litter management over who is responsible for FADs during their drifting stage. This follows recent concerns about unlicensed FADs drifting through closed areas. This article analyses a case study of the Western and Central Pacific Fisheries Commission (WCPFC) in order to determine State obligations to manage drifting FADs. Analysis concludes that a drifting FAD in the WCPFC Area is ‘fishing’ from deployment to recovery, thereby creating obligations to monitor, control and report drifting FADs, consistent with broader obligations for coastal and flag States. The article recommends strengthening regional management in three ways: implement regional drifting FAD monitoring systems; control deployment of drifting FADs so as to promote recovery and minimize lost gear; and define appropriate responses for FADs that drift into national or closed waters without a license.

The use of electronic monitoring within tuna longline fisheries: implications for international data collection, analysis and reporting

Electronic monitoring (EM) consisting of on-board video imagery and on-shore analysis, offers an alternative or supplement to at-sea observer programs in commercial fisheries. In the western and central Pacific Ocean (WCPO), where observer coverage in most tuna longline fisheries has historically been < 5%, the advent of EM has been perceived as a tool for meeting international data collection and exchange obligations. However, the capability of EM to collect and support interpretation of records into data for all fields currently collected by at-sea observers is still under assessment. We use the Western and Central Pacific Fisheries Commission (WCPFC) as a case-study to evaluate the longline WCPFC regional observer programme minimum standard data fields, their current scientific application, the proportion of member countries exchanging data and the capability of EM technology to collect these fields. We identify that 78% of the longline fields can be collected with current EM technology, with 84% of these used in scientific analyses. For the 16% of fields not routinely used in scientific analyses, the introduction of EM may facilitate a sufficient increase in data availability to support their future use. Alternative tools would be required to collect fields that EM could not record to ensure data continuity and scientific rigour are not compromised. In examining the capability of EM in the context of WCPFC member state requirements under international law, we advocate for a holistic and integrated approach to the use of EM in future research and monitoring programs in both the WCPO and global longline fisheries.

Looking to the long-term for management of tropical tunas? An assessment of special requirements arguments at WCPFC14

ABSTRACTThe 14th Session of the Western and Central Pacific Fisheries Commission (WCPFC) convened in Manila, Philippines from 3 to 8 December 2017. At the meeting, Commission members adopted eight legally binding measures for the purposes of conserving and managing tuna and tuna-like species in the Western and Central Pacific Ocean. Closing at three am on the longest day of negotiations in WCPFC history, the session advanced complex negotiations on a bridging measure to regulate the region’s three highly valuable tropical tuna stocks. A key factor in the meeting’s late close was the negotiating positions taken by three member countries to alter the measure based on claims concerning their special requirements. Subsequent debate revealed that the Commission currently lacks a systematic approach to addressing the special requirements of its member countries. Furthermore, negotiations showed the extent to which members leverage ambiguity concerning special requirements in order to broker compromises within the Commission’s ad-hoc, short-term decision-making framework. Outcomes from WCPFC14 demonstrate that while Commission members have made long-term promises to evolve their approach to decision-making through tools like harvest strategies and an allocation framework, at the session itself they continued to rely on short-term decision-making that did not reflect scientifically advised limits.

POSSIBLE USE OF LENGTH-BASED SPAWNING POTENTIAL RATIO FOR SKIPJACK (Katsuwonus pelamis) IN INDONESIA’S ARCHIPELAGIC WATERS

A harvest strategy development for skipjack tuna (Katsuwonus pelamis - SKJ) fishery within Indonesia’s archipelagic waters (Indonesian Fisheries Management Areas - FMAs 713-715) has been initiated, which is mandated within its National Tuna, Skipjack and Neritic Tuna Management Plan. Information on the stock status or indicator is needed, since it is one essential component of a harvest strategy. In fact, the lack of catch and effort data from Indonesian fishery, in general, is still an international concern. A method to assess the stock status for data poor fisheries namely Length-based Spawning Potential Ratio (LB-SPR) was developed. This study attempted to investigate a possible use of the LB-SPR to estimate spawning potential ratios of SKJ using length data from Indonesian pole and line fishery collected by the port-based sampling program (a collaborative project between Indonesia and the Western and Central Pacific Fisheries Commission (WCPFC). There is a decreasing trend in the estimated SPR from 2010 to 2015 unless 2014, indicating that impact of fishing on the resources increased over the study period. If the SPR20% is adopted as limit SPR, then the estimated values of SPR less than SPR20% suggested that recruitment overfishing might be occurring. In fact, the results should be considered as preliminary results, as the size data of SKJ from pole and line might not be capturing large SKJ or the nature of SKJ in Archipealgic waters has smaller size in general compare to other region that potentially hampered the asymptotic selectivity assumption within the LB-SPR model underestimating the SPR. Further work is required to gather complete representative of length data of SKJ covering all length classes of the fishery.

Relationship between fishing grounds temporal-spatial distribution of Thunnus obesus and thermocline characteristics in the Western and Central Pacific Ocean

A thermocline characteristics contour on a spatial overlay map was plotted using data collected on a monthly basis from Argo buoys and data of monthly CPUE (catch per unit effort) bigeye tuna (Thunnus obesus) long-lines fishery from the Western and Central Pacific Fisheries Commission (WCPFC) to evaluate the relationship between fishing grounds temporal-spatial distribution of bigeye tuna and thermocline characteristics in the Western and Central Pacific Ocean (WCPO). In addition, Numerical methods were used to calculate the optimum ranges of thermocline characteristics of the central fishing grounds. The results showed that the central fishing grounds were mainly distributed between 10° N and 10° S. Seasonal fishing grounds in the south of equator were related to the seasonal variations in the upper boundary temperature, depth and thickness of thermocline. The fishing grounds were observed in areas where the upper boundary depth of thermocline was deep (70-100 m) and the thermocline thickness was more than 60 m. The CPUE tended to be low in area where the thermocline thickness was less than 40 m. The optimum upper boundary temperature range for distribution was 26-29 ℃, and the CPUE was mostly lower than the threshold value (Q3) of central fishing grounds when the temperature was higher than 29 ℃ or lower than 26 ℃. The temporal and spatial distribution of the fishing grounds was influenced by the seasonal variations in upper boundary depth and thermocline thickness. The central fishing grounds in the south of equator disappeared when the upper boundary depth of thermocline decreased and thermocline thickness became thinner. The lower boundary temperature and depth of thermocline and thermocline strength has little variation, but were strongly linked to the location of fishing grounds. The fishing grounds were mainly located between the two high-value zones of the lower boundary depth of thermocline, where the temperature was lower than 13 ℃ and the strength was high. When the depth was more than 300 m or less than 150 m, the lower boundary temperature was more than 17 ℃, or the strength was low, the CPUE tended to be low. The optimum range of thermocline characteristics was calculated using frequency analysis and empirical cumulative distribution function. The results showed that the optimum ranges for upper boundary thermocline temperature and depth were 26-29 ℃ and 70-110 m, the optimum lower boundary thermocline temperature and depth ranges were 11-13 ℃ and 200-280 m, the optimum ranges for thermocline thickness and thermocline strength were 50-90 m and 0.1-0.16 ℃·m-1, respectively. The paper documented the distribution interval of thermocline characteristics for central fishing ground of the bigeye tuna in WCPO. The results provided a reference for improving the efficiency of pelagic bigeye tuna fishing operation and tuna resource management in WCPO.

Catch trend of bigeye tuna Thunnus obesus by purse seine using fish aggregating devices, by flag states and area of operation in tropical regions of the Western and Central Pacific Ocean

Seventeen members and cooperating non-members (CCMs) of the Western and Central Pacific Fisheries Commission (WCPFC) were responsible for 86% of the total catch of bigeye tuna Thunnus obesus by purse seine fishing from 2012 to 2014. We categorize the CCMs into an eastern, western and “other” group based on their main fishing areas. We found significant differences in the bigeye tuna catch per fish aggregating device (FAD) between the eastern group and the western group. We also estimated that the eastern group achieved a higher catch of bigeye tuna because of their increased fishing effort using FAD in the eastern area where there is a higher catch per unit effort for FAD. The regression analysis found significant correlations between the annual catch of bigeye tuna and the number of FAD sets. The average catch of bigeye tuna per single FAD set, estimated from the slope of the regression line, was 7.1 t in the eastern area and 2.7 t in the western area. An impact and risk plot composed of the slope of the regression line and the catch of bigeye tuna by each individual CCM was developed to improve management measures. Appropriate measures for the sustainable use of tuna resources in the region are discussed.

Fishy Business: The High Seas Boarding and Inspection Regime in the Western and Central Pacific Ocean

The Western and Central Pacific Fisheries Commission (WCPFC) was created in 2004 to more effectively conserve and manage the region's tuna fishery. One of the Commission's principal enforcement tools is the high seas boarding and inspection regime, which authorizes each member state to board and inspect fishing vessels engaged in a regulated fishery to verify compliance with the Commission's conservation and management measures. This article examines the structure of the WCPFC's high seas boarding and inspection regime and analyzes its effectiveness in furthering the Commission's conservations and management mandate.

Standard for assessing transparency in information on compliance with obligations of regional fisheries management organizations: Validation through assessment of the Western and Central Pacific Fisheries Commission

We developed a standard against which to assess transparency in information on basic governance elements that provides the ability to determine compliance with obligations under regional fisheries management organizations (RFMOs). The performance of the Western and Central Pacific Fisheries Commission (WCPFC), one of five global tuna RFMOs, was made against the standard. RFMOs play a critical role in global fisheries governance by providing a formal mechanism for fishing States and States in whose jurisdiction straddling and highly migratory fishery resources occur to cooperate to pursue the implementation of agreed measures to achieve sustainable international fisheries. Transparency in information on elements of RFMO governance enables public evaluation of compliance by Members and Cooperating Non-members and their vessels, creating an incentive for compliance due to a desire to avoid adverse reputational and economic repercussions of non-compliance. The standard is comprised of criteria assessing open access to information on: (i) compliance with monitoring requirements, (ii) research-grade observer program data, (iii) domestic legislation and regulations to implement binding controls, (iv) surveillance, (v) identified infractions, (vi) enforcement actions, and (vii) outcomes of enforcement actions. The standard further assesses transparency in information on compliance with RFMO obligations of: (viii) payment of assessed financial obligations; (ix) observer data reporting; and (x) reporting information on national implementation and compliance. And, the standard assesses transparency in information on: (xi) RFMO employment of powers in response to Member and Cooperating Non-member non-compliance; and (xii) whether all States and entities conducting fishing activities under the RFMO's mandate are Members or Cooperating Non-members. WCPFC had a lack of transparency for 36% of the elements composing the standard, partial transparency for 36%, and full transparency for the remainder. The lack of a WCPFC process to respond to non-compliance by Members and Cooperating Non-members, a prohibition on States from using information on non-compliance with WCPFC obligations unilaterally, in combination with a substantial lack of transparency in information on compliance, including due to lax reporting, collectively are inadequate incentives for compliance. This new tool provides a standardized method to compare RFMO transparency in compliance information and to establish benchmarks against which to track changes in transparency.