West Africa Research Articles

Size-fractionated carbonaceous and iron-rich particulate matter in urban environments of France and Senegal.

Road traffic is one of the main sources of particulate matter in the urban environment, emitting particulate organic and elemental carbon compounds and metal-rich particles through combustion and brakes and tires wear. In Western Africa, the carbon and metal composition of airborne particles is also influenced by additional sources linked to biomass combustion and recent industrialization. Here, we investigated the impact of combustion-related and non-combustion-related emissions on the distribution of carbonaceous fractions and iron-rich particles in two urban environments in France and Senegal. The supermicron fraction ( µm) showed a significantly higher isothermal remanent magnetization (SIRM) than finer fractions, accounting for 79% in France and 81% in Senegal of the total SIRM. In the submicron fraction ( µm), we noted significantly higher concentrations of total carbon (TC) and elemental carbon (EC) than for other fractions, both accounting for 71% in France and 68% and 75% in Senegal of the total and elemental particulate carbon concentration, respectively. Electron microscope observations revealed the presence of iron-rich particles for µm, however, associated with a weak SIRM. Such iron particles may be produced by combustion or abrasion while we suspect that emissions by the abrasion process produce larger particles.

Two highly selected mutations in the tandemly duplicated CYP6P4a and CYP6P4b genes drive pyrethroid resistance in Anopheles funestus in West Africa

BackgroundGaining a comprehensive understanding of the genetic mechanisms underlying insecticide resistance in malaria vectors is crucial for optimising the effectiveness of insecticide-based vector control methods and developing diagnostic tools for resistance management. Considering the heterogeneity of metabolic resistance in major malaria vectors, the implementation of tailored resistance management strategies is essential for successful vector control. Here, we provide evidence demonstrating that two highly selected mutations in CYP6P4a and CYP6P4b are driving pyrethroid insecticide resistance in the major malaria vector Anopheles funestus, in West Africa.ResultsContinent-wide polymorphism survey revealed escalated signatures of directional selection of both genes between 2014 and 2021. In vitro insecticide metabolism assays with recombinant enzymes from both genes showed that mutant alleles under selection exhibit higher metabolic efficiency than their wild-type counterparts. Using the GAL4-UAS expression system, transgenic Drosophila flies overexpressing mutant alleles exhibited increased resistance to pyrethroids. These findings were consistent with in silico predictions which highlighted changes in enzyme active site architecture that enhance the affinity of mutant alleles for type I and II pyrethroids. Furthermore, we designed two DNA-based assays for the detection of CYP6P4a-M220I and CYP6P4b-D284E mutations, showing their current confinement to West Africa. Genotype/phenotype correlation analyses revealed that these markers are strongly associated with resistance to types I and II pyrethroids and combine to drastically reduce killing effects of pyrethroid bed nets.ConclusionsOverall, this study demonstrated that CYP6P4a and CYP6P4b contribute to pyrethroid resistance in An. funestus and provided two additional insecticide resistance molecular diagnostic tools that would contribute to monitoring and better management of resistance.

Genomic analyses revealed low genetic variation in the intron-exon boundary of the doublesex gene within the natural populations of An. gambiae s.l. in Burkina Faso

BackgroundThe recent success of a population control gene drive targeting the doublesex gene in Anopheles gambiae paved the way for developing self-sustaining and self-limiting genetic control strategies targeting the sex determination pathway to reduce and/or distort the reproductive capacity of insect vectors. However, targeting these genes for genetic control requires a better understanding of their genetic variation in natural populations to ensure effective gene drive spread. Using whole genome sequencing (WGS) data from the Ag1000G project (Ag3.0, 3.4 and 3.8), and Illumina pooled amplicon sequencing, we investigated the genetic polymorphism of the intron-4–exon-5 boundary of the doublesex gene in the natural populations of An. gambiae sensu lato (s.l.).ResultsThe analyses showed a very low variant density at the gRNA target sequence of the Ag(QFS)1 gene drive (previously called dsxFCRISPRh) within the populations of West and East Africa. However, populations from the forest area in Central Africa exhibited four SNP at frequencies ranging from 0.011 to 0.26. The SNP (2R:48714641[C > T]) at high frequencies, i.e. 0.26 is identified within the An. coluzzii population from Angola. The analyses also identified 90 low frequency (1 − 5%) SNPs in the genomic region around the gRNA target sequence (intron-4–exon-5 boundary). Three of these SNPs (2R:48714472 A > T; 2R:48714486 C > A; 2R:48714516 C > T) were observed at frequencies higher than 5% in the UTR region of the doublesex gene. The results also showed a very low variant density and constant nucleotide diversity over a five-year survey in natural An. gambiae s.l. populations of Burkina Faso.ConclusionThese findings will guide the implementation of doublesex-targeted gene drives to support the current control tools in malaria elimination efforts. Our methods can be applied to efficiently monitor the evolution of any sequence of interest in a natural population via pooled amplicon sequencing, surpassing the need for WGS.

Prevalence of diabetes and its associated factors in Cape Verde: an analysis of the 2020 WHO STEPS survey on non-communicable diseases risk factors

BackgroundType 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) represents a significant global health challenge, with its prevalence steadily rising across diverse populations. Understanding the factors associated with T2DM is crucial for effective prevention and management strategies. In Cape Verde, an archipelago nation off the coast of West Africa, the burden of T2DM is of particular concern, yet comprehensive studies investigating its determinants in this context remain sparse. This study aims to narrow the knowledge gap by assessing the prevalence of prediabetes, T2DM and its associated factors among the adult Cape Verdean population.MethodsData from the WHO STEPs survey were used. We analyzed data from 1,936 adults aged 18–69 years. The outcome variable was diabetes status computed using the fasting blood glucose (mg/dl). The data was weighted before the analysis to account for sampling biases. Multinomial logistic regression models were computed in STATA version 18.ResultsThe overall prevalence of prediabetes and T2DM was 7.8% (95% CI: 6.1–9.9) and 3.9% (95% CI: 3.1–4.9), respectively. Increasing age was associated with a higher odd of prediabetes and T2DM with the highest odds observed among older adults [(prediabetes: AORs = 3.20, 95%CI: 1.88–5.54) and T2DM: AOR = 3.51, 95%CI: 1.71–7.18)]. Additionally, high total cholesterol levels were linked to increased odds of T2DM (AOR = 2.48, 95%CI: 1.64–3.76). Individuals who consumed less than four servings of vegetables daily had higher odds of T2DM (AOR = 1.74, 95%CI: 1.12–2.71) while being overweight/obese was associated with higher odds of prediabetes (AOR = 1.57, 95%CI: 1.10–2.23). Urban residents had higher odds of T2DM than rural residents (AOR = 1.92, 95%CI: 1.23-3.00). Also, higher educational attainment was associated with lower odds of T2DM only (AOR = 0.33, 95%CI: 0.12–0.88) but not statistically significant for prediabetes.ConclusionBased on the findings, we conclude that ageing, overweight/obesity, vegetable consumption and total cholesterol level are important predictors of pre-diabetes and T2DM in Cape Verde. As such, weight management and cholesterol management should be integral parts of T2DM prevention strategies. Additionally, clinicians and diabetes societies in Cape Verde must make the promotion of vegetable consumption a key component of their health advice and advocacy.Clinical trial numberNot applicable

Canons and counter canons in the battles about global art

The Cubists’ fascination with African and Oceanic art and its revolutionary influence on Western art in the early 1900s is an important stage in the develop­ ment of modern art. Meanwhile in Africa, in what is now Nigeria, there was a reciprocal interest in Western figurative art, which eventually led to the establish­ ment of academic art education in West Africa. This second story, however, is much less known and, when it is told, the adoption of Western influences has generally been seen as passive and even damaging. Now that these ‘othered’ voices are claiming attention and bringing their views to the art historical debate, Western and non-Western art narratives need to be retold from new perspectives. This article examines two moments, one at the beginning and the other at the end of the 20th century, when the West has enhanced its artistic production by leaning on influences from elsewhere while maintaining the right to grant or deny the status of art for cultural objects to itself. The article calls into question Western practices in categorising products of visual expression and highlights the contractual nature of art historical classifications and canons.

State Fragility and the Resurgence of Military Coups in West-Africa

State fragility and coups in Franco-phone West Africa constitute a worrisome political issue caused by weak leadership, instability, poverty, corruption, weak governance institutions, insurgency and terrorism, kidnapping and banditry, border porosity and high rates of military coup. The paper analysed the causes and consequences of military takeovers in West Africa and the role of regional organizations in curbing them. Secondary materials were used for data analysis. The paper concludes that the brazen-faced and audacious French imperialism in West Africa has contributed to the ongoing instability and insecurity in the subregion; creating a fertile ground for coup resurgence, which was driven by military leaders seeking to gain control and exploit the resources of the region for their own benefit. The paper thus suggests that as soon as the polity is stabilized, political power should be returned to the people in the affected States.

EVALUATION OF INHIBITORY AND TOXICITY EFFECTS OF XYLOPIA AETHIOPICA FRUIT EXTRACT AGAINST ESBL-PRODUCING BACTERIAL STRAINS

This study investigated the inhibitory and toxicity effects of Xylopia aethiopica, widely utilized in traditional medicine, particularly in Nigeria and West Africa. The clinical isolates obtained from Department of Pathology, Federal Medical Center in Nguru, Yobe State which includes Escherichia coli, Proteus vulgaris, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Shigella boydii and Klebsiella oxytoca were identified and confirmed to produce Extended-Spectrum Beta-Lactamase (ESBL) through standard microbiological methods, followed by genotyping via conventional Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR). The bioactivity of Xylopia aethiopica fruit extract against Extended-Spectrum Beta-Lactamase producing bacterial isolates was evaluated using the agar well diffusion method. The quantitative phytochemical analysis carried out through Soxhlet extraction revealed a range of bioactive compounds in varying amounts such as flavonoids, tannins, phenols, saponins and steroids, while alkaloids were not detected in the chloroform extract. Both ethanol and chloroform extracts displayed significant antibacterial activity, with inhibition zones of 27.50 mm at 100% concentration, surpassing the reference drug, Amikacin (18.03 mm). Additionally, in vitro toxicity assessment indicated an LD50 of 3,807.9 mg/kg, indicating a slight toxicity level. These findings suggest that Xylopia aethiopica not only has promising antibacterial properties against ESBL-producing bacteria but also warrants caution due to its potential toxicity. The study emphasizes the need for careful consideration when incorporating Xylopia aethiopica into medicinal practices.

Sanctions as a Coercive Leverage Within ECOWAS

Over the past few years, West Africa has become one of the most turbulent regions in the world and has shocked the world community with a series of military coups. However, escalating tensions between the “rebel states” and ECOWAS have received the most attention. ECOWAS has a wide range of means to exercise pressure on its member states. One of the most powerful is sanctions, but after the recent military coup in Niger, as a result of which the Community imposed unprecedentedly harsh sanctions against the state, the situation has changed radically. The authors list factors that determined the order and reasons for the particular political and economic sanctions before the coup in Niger, analyze the events after it. The paper dwells upon mechanisms of their economic and political impact on the economy of “rebel states” and the long-run efficiency in changing their foreign policy direction. The authors conclude that the economic sanctions have had a negative impact on the sustainability of the long-term development of Burkina Faso, Mali and Niger, which forced them to adopt compromise transition plans. However, sanctions turn out to be inefficient in trying to change the political regime to the one desired by ECOWAS. The disintegration of the association as a result of the creation of the Alliance of Sahel States can be considered a result of the ECOWAS sanction policy.

Gabon: The 2023 Coup in the Context of Postcolonial History

The global geopolitical transformations of modern times are deforming the world order that emerged in the post-war period. These transformations marked the beginning of the end of French dominance in West and Central Africa. There is a rapid degradation and collapse of the military-political system “Fransafrique”. Over the past 3 years, armed coups have occurred in Mali, Guinea, Sudan, Burkina Faso, Niger and Gabon. The violent change of power in all these states had much in common, but there were also significant differences in what was happening in these countries. The article examines the features of the 2023 military coup in the Gabonese Republic and its distinctions from coups in other states in this region. In particular, the Elyse Palace’s loyal attitude towards the initiators of the putsch is noted, and the reasons for this unexpected tolerance are revealed. This also explains the quite benevolent attitude of the putschists towards the presence of French troops on the territory of Gabon. All the coups that have happened in recent years have little in common: the impoverishment of the broad masses, galloping inflation and unemployment. Everywhere there was massive support for the rebel military from civil society.

Advancing road traffic injury measures in the WANA region towards road safety specific SDGs

The study of road traffic injuries (RTIs) is crucial for understanding the unique challenges faced by West Asia and North Africa (WANA) states. This research evaluates road safety practices in the WANA region, comparing them to global standards, and employs secondary data analysis from sources such as the Global Road Safety Status Report, Global Road Safety Facility, and the World Health Organization. The analysis examines epidemiological data, preventive measures like seatbelt and child-restraint use, and policy development, including national action plans, to estimate road traffic death rates per 10,000 vehicles and per 100,000 population. Data from 23 countries are analyzed, focusing on road traffic injury rates by user type, road safety laws, and global safety targets. Overall, WANA states account for 10.5% of global RTI fatalities, exceeding both world and European averages. Most pedestrian fatalities occur in Ethiopia (40.0%) and Afghanistan (34.0%). This indicates that low enforcement scores (averaging 5 out of 10) in most WANA countries contribute to the insufficient effectiveness of road safety laws in reducing injuries and deaths. Achieving the Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) to reduce global road traffic deaths by 50% by 2030 requires commitment and cooperation from governments, communities, and stakeholders in the WANA region.

Coups and Terror in the Sahel

This study investigates the intricate relationship between coups, state fragility, and terrorism in the Sahel region, with a focus on Burkina Faso and Niger. The research contextualizes recent coup attempts and successful seizures of power in West and Central Africa since 2020 within the broader historical landscape of coups on the continent. Coups are increasingly linked to rising state fragility, which fuels the proliferation of terrorist activities, exacerbating instability throughout the Sahel, (Dahiru, 2024; ‘Conflict Watchlist 2023: The Sahel’, no date). Methodologically, this study adopts a multi-faceted approach, combining qualitative analysis of historical data with quantitative assessments of coup occurrences and terrorist incidents. It relies on diverse sources, including the Armed Conflict Location & Event Data Project (ACLED) and scholarly research, to discern patterns and dynamics over time. Theoretically, the study explores how the emergence of military juntas and the erosion of state stability precipitate the spread of terrorism in the region.. The paper will show the extent to which terrorist violence has ravaged local economies, displaced populations and disrupted service provision. The study also aims to explain the implications of increased terrorism for regional security, governance, and potential radicalization and recruitment trends in addition to informing policies and interventions aimed at mitigating the complex interplay of coups, state fragility, and terrorism in the Sahel.

“África Arte Negra” in Brazil

This essay examines África arte Negra, a major exhibition of over 750 African artworks that traveled to Rio de Janeiro, São Paulo, and Brasília from 1969 to 1970. Organized by Henri Senghor, independent Senegal’s first ambassador to Brazil, in collaboration with both Senegalese and Brazilian officials and curators, the exhibition became a site of debate about Brazil’s national identity and definitions of art, presenting an idea of Africa through the art of numerous ethnic communities on the continent. The exhibition articulated independent Senegal’s theory of Négritude, broadly defined as an anticolonial intellectual movement promoting African and diasporic culture and solidarities as well as global Black consciousness, which clashed with Brazil’s rhetoric of racial democracy. Yet the exhibition, I argue, mended these competing discourses for the sake of diplomacy, creating bridges grounded in African art and the history of exchange between West Africa and Brazil.

Bone Marrow Inequality: The Importance of Exchanges in Cancer Education.

This article described an exchange program in Kenya, organized by the International Federation of Medical Students Associations at the University of Nairobi. The author, motivated by parallels between Kenya and Brazil, engaged with hematologic, pain management, and palliative care departments at Kenyatta National Hospital. Despite the global advancements in bone marrow transplant (BMT) procedures, Kenya has only recently begun to offer this treatment, with the first transplant occurring in 2022 at a private facility. The high cost of BMT, ranging from $20,000 to $30,000, limits access for most Kenyans, prompting wealthier patients to seek treatment abroad. The article highlights alarming cancer mortality rates in Kenya, exacerbated by disparities in healthcare access compared to Brazil's universal healthcare system. With a significant proportion of pediatric cancers being hematologic, the need for accessible BMT is urgent. The exchange program provided the author with insights into global oncologic health disparities and emphasized the necessity of improving medical training, increasing hospital resources, and securing support to enhance BMT access in Kenya and West Africa.

Comparative study of two Rift Valley fever virus field strains originating from Mauritania.

Rift Valley fever (RVF) is one of the major viral arthropod-borne diseases in Africa. In recent decades, RVF virus (RVFV), the causative agent of RVF, has been responsible for multiple outbreaks in West Africa with important consequences on human and animal health. In particular, an outbreak occurred in 2010 after heavy rains in the desertic region of Adrar, Mauritania. It was characterized by the appearance of severe clinical signs among dromedary camels. Another one occurred in 2013-2014 across Senegal and the southern part of Mauritania. In this study, we characterized two RVFV field strains isolated during these two outbreaks. The first strain, MRU25010-30, was isolated from a camel (2010) while the second, MRU2687-3, was isolated from a goat (2013). By deep-sequencing and rapid amplification of cDNA-ends by polymerase chain reaction, we successfully sequenced the complete genome of these two RVFV strains as well as the reference laboratory strain ZH548. Phylogenetic analysis showed that the two field viruses belong to two different RVFV genetic lineages. Moreover, we showed that MRU25010-30 replicates more efficiently in various in vitro cell culture models than MRU2687-3 and ZH548. In vivo, MRU25010-30 caused rapid death of BALB/c mice and proved to be more virulent than MRU2687-3, regardless of the route of inoculation (subcutaneous or intranasal). The virulence of MRU25010-30 is associated with a high viral load in the liver and serum of infected mice, while the death of mice infected with MRU2687-3 and ZH548 correlated with a high viral load in the brain. Altogether, the data presented in this study provide new avenues to unveil the molecular viral determinants that modulate RVFV virulence and replication capacity.

Tone Alternation, Polarity, and Down-stepping Influences in Four Noun Categories in Lama

The Lama language, spoken in Togo, West Africa, belongs to the Gur language family. Linguistic studies on Lama‘s tonal system, particularly within the generative grammar framework, remain limited. This study presents a detailed analysis of the tonal rules in Lama, focusing specifically on noun morphology. A comparative analysis of four noun categories reveals: (a) the categories exhibit three surface tone patterns (high-level, low-level, and falling) in isolation; (b) within phrases, the Low Tone Deletion Rule polarises the categories to two tones, retaining only high-level and low-level tones, as falling tones are blocked in this context; (c) tone alternation is governed by the High Tone Spread Rule; (d) while the underlying tones correspond to surface tones in the first three categories, the fourth category’s underlying rising LH sequence never surfaces and is simplified to a low-level tone via the Contour Tone Simplification Rule; and (e) the phenomenon of downstep arises from the interaction of the High Tone Spread, Low Tone Deletion, and Contour Tone Simplification rules.

Mosquito-independent milk-associated transmission of zoonotic Wesselsbron virus in sheep.

Wesselsbron virus (WSLV) is a zoonotic, mosquito-borne orthoflavivirus endemic to sub-Saharan Africa, causing abortions and stillbirths in small ruminants. The life cycle of WSLV involves Aedes mosquitoes and various wildlife and domestic animals. Seminal studies in the 1950s have shown the zoonotic potential of WSLV, notably in accidental infections of laboratory workers exposed to infected material. More recent epidemiological studies suggest the emergence of clade I WSLV strains in peri-domestic and rural areas of western and eastern Africa. The pathobiology of recent clade I WSLV strains is unknown and no virus isolate is available. To address these gaps, we generated a recombinant clade I WSLV SA999 infectious clone (rSA999) by reverse genetics. Subsequently, lactating ewes were inoculated intravenously with the WSLV rSA999 strain or the clade II SAH177 strain in insect-free biocontainment stables. Inoculated ewes developed fever, viremia, and showed high levels of viral RNA at mucosal surfaces, and elevated viral titers in milk. Milk production was reduced, which directly affected the growth of the lambs, particularly within the rSA999 group. The ewes with higher WSLV titers in their milk in each group transmitted the infection to their lambs, which developed fever, prolonged viremia, and virus secretion. All infected animals produced high antibody titers with cross-neutralizing activity against both WSLV strains. Histopathology and blood biochemistry analysis indicated liver damage associated with necrotizing hepatitis lesions and active viral replication in some cases, which was more pronounced in the rSA999 group. Notably, only the SAH177-infected animals exhibited lesions consistent with meningoencephalitis, suggesting that WSLV clade II strains are neurotropic and that clade I strain are more hepatotropic. These findings demonstrate a previously unrecognized mode of vector-free transmission of WSLV that raises significant concerns for public and animal health.

The Influence of Planning and Architectural Styles on the Sustainability of the City of Kumasi, Ghana

The city of Kumasi that was once dubbed the ‘Garden City of West Africa’ was founded in the late 17th century and served as the seat of government for the medieval Greater Asante Union. It later served as a commercial hub for the British Colony after undergoing massive transformation in the first two decades of the 19th century. Post-independence, the city went through various urban planning projects that mostly targeted social development. The architecture of Kumasi has also been changing through different periods of its history. This article examines the relationship between the evolution of the city of Kumasi through urban planning and architecture and the general sustainability in construction. The results show that there is massive depletion of the green belt in Kumasi. Moreover, contemporary architecture uses fewer passive designs for indoor climate control and less local materials for construction. Use of technology for improvement of local materials compressive strength and integration of renewable energy sources in architecture are recommended as course of action.

Individual-Level Drivers of Food Choices and Diet Quality Among Adolescents in Urban West Africa: Evidence From Accra, Ghana.

Diet quality is influenced by multiple individual factors, but their relative strength and importance remain unclear. We investigate the associations between five domains of individual factors (economic, cognitive, aspirational, situational and consumer behaviour) and diet intake of adolescents in Accra, Ghana. A cross-sectional survey among Junior High School (JHS) students (n = 409, mean age 14.3 years ± 1.28 (SD)) in Accra, Ghana, was conducted. Data on diet intake, knowledge, attitude and practices (KAP) and socioeconomic background characteristics were collected. Adjusting for other factors, students' total budget was positively associated with food group diversity (β = 0.12, 95% confidence interval [CI] 0.09-0.15) but inversely associated with diet quality (β = -0.07, 95% CI -0.11 to -0.03). Positive attitude towards nutrition and healthy eating was inversely associated with unfavourable diversity (β = -0.17, 95% CI -0.31 to -0.03). Differences between negative deviants relative to positive deviants were determined by attitude towards healthy eating (odds ratio [OR] = 0.41; 95% CI 0.17-0.99) and family practices (OR = 0.48; 95% CI 0.23-1.00). We provide evidence that higher food budgets were associated with higher diet diversity, but not with improved diet quality. Attitude, but not knowledge, was linked to better diet quality. Future studies should focus on the specific contribution of aspirational, situational and behavioural factors in directing increased diversity towards favourable eating habits.

Can China and Russia as ‘Civilisation States’ Emerge as Security Providers in West Asia?

In the recent past, the two self-affirmed ‘civilisation states’, China and Russia, have actively sought to play a role in peace-building initiatives in West Asia and North Africa. The China-brokered rapprochement of Saudi Arabia and Iran in 2023 within the framework of its ‘quasi-mediation diplomacy’, and the Russian proposal for a ‘Collective Security Concept for the Persian Gulf’ in 2019, demonstrate the two states’ proactive approach to bringing stability to the region which was perceived as an Anglo-American area of influence. Today, the idea of Western hegemony in the world, but more specifically in West Asia is challenged by the emergence of non-Western powers like China, Russia, India, and Turkey. The failure of the American interventions in Iraq and Afghanistan and attempts at peacebuilding in West Asia have put the spotlight on waning Western influence in the region. As the US and Europe try to defend the cherished values of liberal internationalism and European cosmopolitanism, China and Russia have reinvented themselves as ‘civilisation states’ and challenge the Western values that had formed the bedrock of global affairs in the last century. Each of them has tried to put forth a model of engagement which draws inspiration from their own cultural and civilisational antecedents. This is a legitimate way for China and Russia to distinguish them from the discredited Western model and popularise the idea of an alternative to the outdated Western one. There is a growing interest in alternate models of engagement in the non-Western world and consequently in support of Chinese and Russian interventions. It is against this backdrop that this paper will explore how China and Russia as ‘civilisation states’ have attempted to build peace and stability in West Asia. The paper will attempt to explore the definitional contours of the ‘civilisation state’ which sets it apart from the idea of the ‘nation-state’ which is rooted in European history and philosophy and is often understood as a Western concept. Subsequently, the paper will attempt to understand the motivations that have driven the two countries to adopt this approach. Next, it will juxtapose the Western model of peacebuilding in the region and underscore the reasons for its apparent failure. The paper will then attempt to explore the possibility of developing a conflict resolution model based on the approaches that China and Russia have adopted and, finally, conclude by examining reasons why this model could work should the two states decide to work together to resolve conflicts and build peace in West Asia.

No One Home? New Evidence for MIS 3 Occupations in the Western Cape (South Africa) from Mertenhof Rock Shelter

Southern Africa features an intensively studied Stone Age sequence, though one with geographical and temporal gaps. The archaeology of Marine Isotope Stage (MIS) 3 remains understudied, particularly between ~ 50 and 25 ka. This period encompasses important ecological, demographic and cultural changes, most notably the transition from Middle Stone Age (MSA) to Later Stone Age (LSA) technologies. In western South Africa, previous research postulated a demographic hiatus during the second half of MIS 3, potentially due to hyperarid climatic conditions. Here, we provide evidence of occupation during this period at Mertenhof Rock Shelter (MRS) in the form of new chronometric and technological data. OSL estimates suggest two pulses of low-intensity occupations at ~ 50 ka and 41–37 ka, allowing for a diachronic assessment of technological changes. These sporadic MSA occupations complement the more widespread occurrence of open-air settlements along the Doring River during ~ 50–35 ka. At MRS, knappers procured local rock types and produced small flakes and some laminar elements via platform, bipolar and Levallois reduction. The retouched elements feature splintered pieces and denticulates but mostly lack points. Differences to contemporaneous sites in eastern southern Africa underscore ongoing technological regionalisation and demographic partitioning during MIS 3. The temporal changes in the sequence show some antecedents of Early LSA technological systems, which appear in the region around 25 ka, but not in a unidirectional manner. Lithic and chronometric evidence from MRS supports scenarios of a long MSA persistence within MIS 3 in southern Africa and a late emergence of the LSA sometime after 35 ka.