West African Savanna Research Articles

Exploring and closing the energy balance of eddy covariance measurements along a land use gradient in the West African Sudanian savanna

A good understanding of land-atmosphere exchange processes is essential for developing sustainable land management practices in Africa, in order to enhance food security and strengthen the resilience against climate change and extremes in this vulnerable region. In this study, we explore the energy balance closure (EBC) of three eddy covariance (EC) sites implemented along a land use gradient (pristine savanna forest, cropland, and degraded grassland) in the Sudanian savanna of West Africa. Our results show that the EBC strongly varies over the monsoon season and the EC sites. However, the best EBC is observed at the pristine site, which has the most homogenous vegetation. Thus, landscape heterogeneity seems to play an important role in the quality of the EC measurements. Moreover, we develop a novel post-closure method based on a quantile-mapping technique conditioned on monsoonal circulation patterns specifically determined for the West African Monsoon. This method is also compared to two well-established methods, the Bowen-ratio (BR) correction and a pure quantile-mapping using various bias measures. Our results show that the novel post-closure method outperforms the other methods and, therefore, leads to better elimination of the underestimation of the turbulent fluxes at the three savanna sites. In addition, specific characteristics of turbulent fluxes, like their strong diurnal cycle, are well represented by the new correction method.

Greenhouse gas emission from prescribed fires is influenced by vegetation types in West African Savannas

Greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions from prescribed fires are poorly investigated, resulting in a high uncertainty in GHG budgets. Using, a carbon mass balance approach and experimental prescribed fires in 80 plots, this study assessed carbon emissions and established emission factors (EFs) for carbon dioxides (CO2), carbon monoxide (CO), and methane (CH4) across climate zones and vegetation types. In grass and shrub savannas, fires could burn intensely due to the lower moisture content and continuous spatial distribution of biomass fuel, causing greater carbon emissions with 1.61 ± 0.13 t C ha−1 and 1.01 ± 0.13 t C ha−1, respectively. Despite their low carbon emissions, tree savannas (1658.17 ± 11.13 g kg−1) and woodlands (1629.94 ± 12.23 g kg−1) have the highest EFs, which can be attribute to the high carbon content of biomass fuel in these vegetation types. Vegetation types and their interaction with climate zones have a substantial impact on carbon emissions and carbon species EFs, and should therefore be considered in assessing GHG emissions from fires. The findings from this study provide a useful basis for improving the national measurement, reporting, and verification of GHG emissions and for improving the measurement of the global balance of GHG emissions from fires.

Assessment of soil carbon dioxide efflux from contrasting land uses in a semi-arid savannah ecosystem, northeastern Ghana (West Africa)

Soil respiration (SR) emits a vast amount of atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO2) and contributes largely to the global greenhouse gas budget. The study assessed the dynamics of SR rates in the Vea catchment in northeastern Ghana, a sparsely gauged semi-arid savannah ecosystem characterized by distinct patterns of soil CO2 efflux. Through field measurements using soil chambers, the study quantified soil CO2 efflux rates in different land use types (woodland, cropland and grazeland), and assessed the influence of soil moisture, temperature, and soil organic carbon stocks on SR variability. The highest soil CO2 fluxes (12.97 ± 0.89 Mg CO2C ha−1 yr−1) were recorded in woodland, followed by grazeland (9.10 ± 0.42 Mg CO2C ha−1 yr−1) with cropland having the lowest rate (5.61 ± 0.29 Mg CO2C ha−1 yr−1). We recorded mean annual soil CO2 flux of 9.23 ± 0.53 Mg CO2C ha−1 yr−1 across the land use types and also observed significant seasonal and spatial variations in SR rates. The highest SR rate (220 mg CO2C m−2h−1) was recorded in the wet months (Jul-Sept and Mar-May) and the lowest rate (30 mg CO2C m−2h−1) in the dry months (Nov-Jan). For the wet season, the mean weekly soil CO2 fluxes ranged between 140 and 160 mg CO2C m−2 hr−1 as opposed to 60–75 mg CO2C m−2 hr−1 for the dry season. Seasonal and spatial variations in SR rates were largely driven by land use type, soil moisture and the interaction of soil temperature and moisture. The results underscore the importance of understanding the emission patterns from various land uses in West African savanna ecosystems to harnessing their potential for climate change mitigation.

Spatial heterogeneity of nitrification contributes to tree–grass coexistence in West African savannas

Abstract In savannas, the coexistence between trees and grasses is determined by complex mechanisms based on water partitioning and disturbances. But little is known about the contribution of other resources, such as soil nitrogen (N). In West African savannas, nitrification inhibition by grasses and nitrification stimulation by trees create spatial heterogeneity in nitrification fluxes and N stocks. Savanna trees can also extend part of their roots in the surrounding open area to absorb N. To investigate the role of the spatial heterogeneity of nitrification in tree–grass coexistence, we used a two‐patch model that simulates N dynamics between an open patch (without trees) and a tree clump patch (trees with grasses under their canopy). The open patch was characterized by a low nitrification rate, while the tree clump patch was characterized by a high nitrification rate. Both patches were connected through horizontal fluxes due to soil horizontal exploration by tree roots. We tested coexistence for different spatial tree distributions, as they are known to strongly influence savanna dynamics. Our results show that the spatial heterogeneity of nitrification induces spatial partitioning between ammonium (NH4+) and nitrate (NO3−) promoting tree–grass coexistence. As nitrification inhibition by grasses leads to high NH4+ availability in the open, the possibilities of coexistence are optimized when trees have different preferences in the open versus under their canopy. Thus, tree–grass coexistence is observed when grasses prefer NH4+, while trees prefer NH4+ in the open and NO3− under their canopy. Contrary to random tree distribution, tree clumping enhances tree–grass coexistence. Intraspecific aggregation strengthens the effect of spatial heterogeneity, which decreases interspecific competition and favours tree–grass coexistence. On the contrary, increasing the surface explored by tree roots in the open tends to increase tree–grass competition. This enhances the competitive ability of trees for N acquisition and consequently favours tree invasion. Synthesis. This study shows that this new coexistence mechanism based on mineral N partitioning into NH4+ and NO3− can be determinant in the functioning of West African humid savannas. This mechanism likely interacts with mechanisms based on disturbances, but such interactions should be studied using new models.

Phylogenetic diversity and community wide-trait means offer different insights into mechanisms regulating aboveground carbon storage

Both attributes of functional traits and phylogenetic diversity influence ecosystem functions, but which of these factors is most important is still poorly understood in natural systems. Using data from West African forests and tree savannas, we analyse how (i) phylogenetic diversity complements attributes of functional traits in explaining aboveground carbon (AGC); (ii) phylogenetic diversity relates with attributes of functional traits along gradients of phylogenetic signal; and (iii) pathways between phylogenetic diversity and attributes of functional traits relate AGC to soil and climate. Phylogenetic diversity was measured as standardised effect size of Mean Pairwise Distance (sesMPD) and Mean Nearest Taxon Distance (sesMNTD). Functional dispersion (FDis) and community weighted mean (CWM) were calculated for four traits related to leaf economics spectrum and plant life-history.Functional traits-based models explained 11 % of AGC variability. With two out of the four traits being phylogenetically conserved, incorporating phylogenetic diversity in the models increased the explained variance in AGC by 15 %. The slope of phylogenetic diversity-trait relationship was more responsive to trait conservatism for FDis than CWM. AGC was positively influenced by sesMPD and CWM of plant maximum height. In turn, CWM of plant maximum height increased with higher soil nitrogen and climate moisture, whereas sesMPD was negatively related with climate moisture. Although FDis was positively associated with sesMPD, it was not as important as sesMPD and CWM of plant maximum height in influencing and relating AGC to soil nitrogen and climate moisture.Our results suggest that phylogenetic diversity is important for AGC but does not fully reflect the functional mechanisms pertaining to community-wide trait means. The study also demonstrates the role of environment in regulating AGC, which operates through differences in community fitness driven by tall plant stature, and evolutionary processes whereby closely related species are maintained in less arid environments.

Contribution of small rodent communities (Muridae) to the history of West Central African savannas (case of Gabonese savannas): diversity, biogeographic affinities, phylogeography and paleoenvironmental analyses

Savannas of West Central Africa stand around or inside the large rainforest block. They result from paleo-climatic fluctuations, but the details of their history remain poorly known. The aim of the present study is to explain the present distribution of savannas in West Central Africa, considering the two classic anthropic or paleoclimatic hypotheses about their origin. The study was focused on Gabonese savannas and based on small terrestrial mammal patterns. The phylogeography of small species of strictly savanicolous rodents was compared using nested clade analysis of haplotype networks based on cytochrome b mitochondrial DNA, coupled with other approaches. The data were also compared with literature data on vegetation changes in tropical West Africa over the last 150,000 years to test scenarios on the origin and history of Gabonese savannas. The results showed several fragmentation events of small rodent populations and revealed redundant biogeographic relationships. These events were dated, and the results about the history of rodent species were congruent with palaeobiological data about the successive phases of savanna expansion and fragmentation: the results support the hypothesis of a paleoclimatic origin of the Western Congolian forest-savanna mosaic. These rodent population fragmentation events occurred more than 50,000 years ago.

Climate and soil effects on tree species diversity and aboveground carbon patterns in semi-arid tree savannas

Climatic and edaphic effects are increasingly being discussed in the context of biodiversity-ecosystem functioning. Here we use data from West African semi-arid tree savannas and contrasting climatic conditions (lower vs. higher mean annual precipitation-MAP and mean annual temperature-MAT) to (1) determine how climate modulates the effects of species richness on aboveground carbon (AGC); (2) explore how species richness and AGC relate with soil variables in these contrasting climatic conditions; and (3) assess how climate and soil influence directly, and/or indirectly AGC through species richness and stand structural attributes such as tree density and size variation. We find that greater species richness is generally associated with higher AGC, but more strongly in areas with higher MAP, which also have greater stem density. There is a climate-related influence of soils on AGC, which decreases from lower to higher MAP conditions. Variance partitioning analyses and structural equation modelling show that, across all sites, MAP, relative to soils, has smaller effect on AGC, mediated by stand structural attributes whereas soil texture and fertility explain 14% of variations in AGC and influence AGC directly and indirectly via species richness and stand structural attributes. Our results highlight coordinated effects of climate and soils on AGC, which operated primarily via the mediation role of species diversity and stand structures.

Impact of climate patterns, land-use types and exploitation on the population structure of Bombax costatum Pellegr. and Vuillet in West African semi-arid savannas

Impact of climate patterns, land-use types and exploitation on the population structure of Bombax costatum Pellegr. and Vuillet in West African semi-arid savannas

The Potential of Deep Learning for Satellite Rainfall Detection over Data-Scarce Regions, the West African Savanna

Food and economic security in West Africa rely heavily on rainfed agriculture and are threatened by climate change and demographic growth. Accurate rainfall information is therefore crucial to tackling these challenges. Particularly, information about the occurrence and length of droughts as well as the onset date of the rainy season is essential for agricultural planning. However, existing rainfall models fail to accurately represent the highly variable and sparsely monitored West African rainfall patterns. In this paper, we show the potential of deep learning (DL) to model rainfall in the region and propose a methodology to develop DL models in data-scarce areas. We built two DL models for satellite rainfall (rain/no-rain) detection over northern Ghana from Meteosat TIR data based on standard DL architectures: Convolutional neural networks (CNNs) and convolutional long short-term memory neural networks (ConvLSTM). The Integrated Multi-satellitE Retrievals for the Global Precipitation Measurement (GPM) mission (IMERG) and Precipitation Estimation from Remotely Sensed Imagery Using an Artificial Neural Network Cloud Classification System (PERSIANN-CCS) products are used as benchmarks. We use rain gauge data from the Trans-African Hydro-Meteorological Observatory (TAHMO) for model development and performance evaluation. We show that our models compare well against existing products despite being considerably simpler, developed with a small training dataset—i.e., 8 stations covering 2.5 years with 20.4% of the data missing—and using TIR data alone. Concretely, our models consistently outperform PERSIANN-CCS for rain/no-rain detection at a sub-daily timescale. While IMERG is the overall best performer, the DL models perform better in the second half of the rainy season despite their simplicity (i.e., up to 120 k parameters). Our results suggest that DL-based regional models are a promising alternative to state-of-the-art global products for providing regional rainfall information, especially in meteorologically complex regions such as the (sub)tropics, which are poorly covered by ground-based rainfall observations.

Climate change mitigation potential of agroforestry farms in West African Savanna

Agroforestry is a land management strategy which interfaces between agriculture and forestry. It is a reliable means to combating climate change in different parts of the world. Although majority of smallholder farmers in Ghana are aware of the benefits associated with agroforestry practice, degradation of trees on farmlands remains a major concern. This study investigates the potential of agroforestry as a climate change mitigation strategy in the Nandom Municipal. Eight (8) agroforestry farms were selected for assessment using the non-destructive method. In each farm, the trees were identified by both scientific and local names. The diameter at breast height and height of the trees were measured. The biomass was estimated using the allometric model developed by Aabeyir et al. (2020). The carbon was estimated from the biomass using a factor of 0.47. The results indicate that carbon sequestration is high among trees species like Lannea velutina, Parkia biglobosa and Vitellaria paradoxa which often have large DBH. The study therefore recommends for nursery and integration of such tree species with smallholder crops for purposes of agroforestry.

NDVI-Derived Vegetation Trends and Driving Factors in West African Sudanian Savanna

NDVI-Derived Vegetation Trends and Driving Factors in West African Sudanian Savanna

Bias correction of daily precipitation for ungauged locations using geostatistical approaches: A case study for the CORDEX‐Africa ensemble

AbstractClimate model simulations typically exhibit a bias, which can be corrected using statistical approaches. In this study, a geostatistical approach for bias correction of daily precipitation at ungauged locations is presented. The method utilizes a double quantile mapping with dry day correction for future periods. The transfer function of the bias correction for the ungauged locations is established using distribution functions estimated by ordinary kriging with anisotropic variograms. The methodology was applied to the daily precipitation simulations of the entire CORDEX‐Africa ensemble for a study region located in the West African Sudanian Savanna. This ensemble consists of 23 regional climate models (RCM) that were run for three different future scenarios (RCP 2.6, RCP 4.5, and RCP 8.5). The evaluation of the approach for a historical 50‐year period (1950–2005) showed that the method can reduce the inherent strong precipitation bias of RCM simulations, thereby reproducing the main climatological features of the observed data. Moreover, the bias correction technique preserves the climate change signal of the uncorrected RCM simulations. However, the ensemble spread is increased due to an overestimation of the rainfall probability of uncorrected RCM simulations. The application of the bias correction method to the future period (2006–2100) revealed that annual precipitation increases for most models in the near (2020–2049) and far future (2070–2099) with a mean increase of up to (18%). An analysis of the monthly and daily time series showed a slightly delayed onset and intensification of the rainy season.

The diet of the snakes of the genera Atractaspis Smith, 1849, and Amblyodipsas Peters, 1857 (Lamprophiidae: Atractaspidinae) in the West African and Chad savannas

The diet of the snakes of the genera Atractaspis Smith, 1849, and Amblyodipsas Peters, 1857 (Lamprophiidae: Atractaspidinae) in the West African and Chad savannas

Fire use practices, knowledge and perceptions in a West African savanna parkland

Understanding people's practices, knowledge and perceptions of the use of fire and fire regimes can inform fire management plans that could contribute to savanna conservation and sustainable management. We investigated the frequency of fire use, control and perceptions of fire regimes for selected livelihood and socio-cultural activities in six districts in the Guinea savanna of Ghana. The six districts were selected to have a good representation of fire prone areas in the region based on fire frequency data obtained from the CSIR Meraka Institute, South Africa. A multiple regression analysis showed that people's use of fire for the selected socio-cultural activities from district, occupation, gender, age and ethnic group significantly predicted fire use for the activities R2 = 0.043, F (5,498) = 5.43, p < 0.000. Age and occupation added significantly to the use of fire. The study revealed that the majority of respondents (83%) across the study districts used fire once a year for at least one of the following activities: land preparation, weed/pest control, burning postharvest stubble, bush clearing around homesteads, firebreaks, charcoal burning and hunting. The study also showed a higher frequency of fire use for land preparation for cropping than for the other activities. Less than a fifth of the respondents (17%) indicated that they do not use fire for any of the selected activities. The majority of respondents (65%) mentioned that they controlled their use of fire to prevent destruction to property or injuring humans. The study revealed a higher frequency of fire use in the dry season for land preparation for cropping. However, respondents rated season of burning as the most important attribute, with little attention to the other attributes of a fire regime, contrary to what is theoretically recognized. Understanding traditional fire use practices in terms of how to regulate the mix of frequency, intensity/severity, season, size and type of fire for these and other socio-cultural purposes could help to mitigate and/or manage bushfires in West African savannas and enhance savanna conservation and management. Hence, the need to better understand people's knowledge and perceptions of fire regimes in fire assisted socio-cultural practices in West Africa.

Topography and wind moulding directions of autumn migration between Europe and the West African savannas

This review on autumn migratory directions is thought as a complement to an earlier overview on the vertical distribution of bird migration between the Baltic Sea and the Sahara (Bruderer et al. in J Ornithol 159:315–336, 2018): (1) A broad synopsis shows that nocturnal migration is generally SW-oriented above the western half of the European mainland, bending gradually southward above the western Sahara and shifting SE at the Sahara-Sahel transition. Important deviations of the SW stream occur along mountain ranges and coastlines. (2) Taking the Alps as a case example of such a leading-line reveals that the effect of the Alpine arc on migratory directions increases from E to W, becoming most prominent in Switzerland where the northern border and the main ridges of the Alps bend from WSW towards SSW. Thus, the migratory stream gets increasingly aligned with the course of the mountain range and reaches highest concentrations in the Swiss Lowlands. (3) Simultaneously recorded tracking radar data on nocturnal migration above Southern Germany and above the Swiss Lowlands show similar distributions of headings, but different tracks (flight directions over ground). (4) Generally, a large proportion of the tracks above the rather flat country N of the Rhine is shifted towards S or SE by frequent westerly winds. This contrasts with barely drifting birds facing south-westerly headwinds canalized along the Jura Mountains in the Swiss Lowlands. (5) Tracks and headings under varying wind conditions above Southern Germany visualise different reactions to following vs opposing winds as well as to side-winds from the right and left. (6) Radar-tracked night migrants above three different sites in south-western Switzerland show their reactions to different topographical conditions which vary from moderate leading effects of the Jura Mountains at a lowland site, to extreme funnelling at an Alpine pass, and wide scatter when a large Alpine valley perpendicular to the principal SW-direction of migration is crossed. (7) Distinguishing between three height zones reveals that (a) the proportion of SSW migration increases with height; this besides a few birds drifting across the Jura Mountains; (b) at the Alpine pass, forward migration is canalised as a narrow stream and complemented by notable reverse movements, while the highest level (above the crests) is characterised by wide directional scatter including moderate southward drift; (c) the proportion of movements along the SE–NW leading Rhone Valley decreases with altitude, while the proportion of SW migration increases, and the distribution approximates that at the pass in the highest zone. (8) This information leads to ideas for continuative studies, particularly on reverse movements, drift and compensation in the Alps and their northern approach areas.

Topography and wind moulding directions of autumn migration between Europe and the West African savannas

Topography and wind moulding directions of autumn migration between Europe and the West African savannas

Climate Change Mitigation Potential of Agroforestry Farms in West African Savanna

Climate Change Mitigation Potential of Agroforestry Farms in West African Savanna

Estimation of Byram’s Fire Intensity and Rate of Spread from Spaceborne Remote Sensing Data in a Savanna Landscape

Fire behavior is well described by a fire’s direction, rate of spread, and its energy release rate. Fire intensity as defined by Byram (1959) is the most commonly used term describing fire behavior in the wildfire community. It is, however, difficult to observe from space. Here, we assess fire spread and fire radiative power using infrared sensors with different spatial, spectral and temporal resolutions. The sensors used offer either high spatial resolution (Sentinel-2) for fire detection, but a low temporal resolution, moderate spatial resolution and daily observations (VIIRS), and high temporal resolution with low spatial resolution and fire radiative power retrievals (Meteosat SEVIRI). We extracted fire fronts from Sentinel-2 (using the shortwave infrared bands) and use the available fire products for S-NPP VIIRS and Meteosat SEVIRI. Rate of spread was analyzed by measuring the displacement of fire fronts between the mid-morning Sentinel-2 overpasses and the early afternoon VIIRS overpasses. We retrieved FRP from 15-min Meteosat SEVIRI observations and estimated total fire radiative energy release over the observed fire fronts. This was then converted to total fuel consumption, and, by making use of Sentinel-2-derived burned area, to fuel consumption per unit area. Using rate of spread and fuel consumption per unit area, Byram’s fire intensity could be derived. We tested this approach on a small number of fires in a frequently burning West African savanna landscape. Comparison to field experiments in the area showed similar numbers between field observations and remote-sensing-derived estimates. To the authors’ knowledge, this is the first direct estimate of Byram’s fire intensity from spaceborne remote sensing data. Shortcomings of the presented approach, foundations of an error budget, and potential further development, also considering upcoming sensor systems, are discussed.

A Quantitative Index Based on Leaf Heteroblasty for Predicting Root Biomass in a Frequently Burned Savanna Species: Cussonia arborea Hochst. Ex A. Rich. (Araliaceae)

Background: Biotic and abiotic disturbances such as frequent wildfires and herbivory contribute to maintain trees and grasses coexistence in savanna ecosystems. In comparison to stems and leaves, exposed to fire and herbivory, the roots, protected by being belowground, are less affected by these disturbances. Therefore, indirect estimation of belowground biomass (BGB) of savanna trees from simple allometric relations based on stem measurements can lead to major biases.&#x0D; Aims: In this study we explored how the Leaf ontogenetic change index (LOCI), a quantitative index based on leaf heteroblastic development, can provide an accurate estimate of BGB in Cussonia arborea, a widespread species in West African humid savannas.&#x0D; Methodology: We examined leaf morphometrics on post-fire resprouts of 40 individuals to assess whether LOCI can inform on plant age. We then analyzed by log-level regressions the variation of LOCI in relation to plant stem volume. Subsequently, we studied the variation of BGB according to stem volume, and as a function of both stem volume and LOCI, which allowed us to evaluate the contribution of LOCI to BGB estimation. BGB was obtained destructively by digging up roots and weighing total dry mass of 25 individuals including small and large trees. Statistical analyses were done with the R software.&#x0D; Place and Duration of Study: Study was performed in the Lamto Scientific Reserve, Côte d’Ivoire, between May 2020 and June 2021.&#x0D; Results: Using the stem volume as single explanatory variable of BGB, the regression model provided an adjusted R2 of 0.71. Association of the stem volume with LOCI increased the adjusted R2 from 0.71 to 0.90.&#x0D; Conclusion: Combining LOCI with a measure of stem size provides better estimate of BGB in C. arborea compared to estimate based on stem size only. Since a large proportion of woody species in frequently disturbed environments exhibit an overall strategies promoting persistence, future works should evaluate how these strategies are modulated during ontogeny and can explain biomass variation over time.

Effects of fire on the population structure and abundance of Anogeissus leiocarpa and Vitellaria paradoxa in a West African savanna parkland

The West African savanna experiences a prolonged dry season with Harmattan winds which facilitate large and persistent biomass burning from November to April. The fires are mostly caused by humans, mainly in pursuit of the day to day livelihood activities. We examined how fire influences the population structure and abundance of two economically important woody species Vitellaria paradoxa (Shea tree) and Anogeissus leiocarpa (African Birch) in six land use types in the Guinea savanna, Ghana. We calculated the stand basal area, mean densities of juveniles and adult trees, Lorey's mean height of adult trees and Simpson's index of dominance. Eight diameter size classes of each species were analysed by comparing their observed distributions to a three-parameter Weibull distribution across the land use types. A total of 3366 individuals of A. leiocarpa (n = 1,846) and V. paradoxa (n = 1,520) were enumerated. The basal area of A. leiocarpa and V. paradoxa in sacred groves (16.9 m2 ha−1) and unburnt woodlands (20.6 m2 ha−1) was higher than the estimates in the other land use types. High mean densities of A. leiocarpa and V. paradoxa were found in sacred groves (22.7 ± 29.7 stems ha−1) and fallows (15.3 ± 2.2 stems ha−1), respectively. Mean density of juveniles of both A. leiocarpa (248.0 ± 89.1 stems ha−1) and V. paradoxa (68.0 ± 29.7 stems ha−1) were higher in unburnt woodlands than in the other land use types. A. leiocarpa was absent in fallows and burnt crop fields. An inverse J-shaped distribution was found in sacred groves for both species.The absence of A. leiocarpa in burnt crop fields and the decrease of some size classes of V. paradoxa in both burnt and unburnt crop fields indicate the need for sustainable conservation of both species. Furthermore, the inverse J-shape distribution found in sacred groves for both A. leiocarpa and V. paradoxa implies that these species thrive best with minimal anthropogenic disturbances. Although species conservation is achieved through conventional protection, traditional or cultural conservation practices which avoid the indiscriminate use of fire should be highly promoted to ensure sustainable conservation of species.