Well-trained Scientists Research Articles

Honey, I Shrunk the Columns: Recent Advances in the Design and Use of Narrow Internal Diameter UHPLC Columns

The quest for increased sensitivity for low-concentration samples continues at an accelerated pace, especially in the pharmaceutical and clinical environments. High-end mass spectrometry instruments can enable the analyst to detect analytes at attomolar concentrations, but can be prohibitively expensive and require well-trained scientists to operate and interpret the data. Another approach to improve the sensitivity of high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) assays is by decreasing the internal diameter (i.d.) of the column. Reducing the column’s internal diameter down from 4.6 mm to 2.1 mm has been in practice for several decades. However, extra caution is required when considering going down below 2.1-mm i.d. into the “capillary-flow” format. This paper describes advances in column design that enable the analyst to achieve high sensitivity and efficiency when reducing the internal diameter of the column. After an introduction outlining the theory of increased sensitivity with narrow and capillary-scale internal diameter columns, a novel 1.5-mm i.d. column format will be presented detailing how sensitivities comparable to capillary-like separations can be achieved with this column geometry. Application examples will demonstrate the performance benefits of utilizing a 1.5-mm i.d. column geometry.

VIEWS ON NATURE OF SCIENCE AND ATTITUDES TOWARD TEACHING NATURE OF SCIENCE AMONG CHEMISTRY STUDENTS IN SAUDI UNIVERSITIES

Understanding nature of science (NOS) is a fundamental goal in science education standards. Due to the role of specialised and educational teachers' preparation programmes in developing their NOS concepts, this study aims to identify views on NOS and attitudes toward teaching NOS among Saudi undergraduate chemistry students and the differences between them according to their academic level and university affiliation. Views on science and education questionnaire were distributed among chemistry students in eight universities. Results found inaccurate views regarding the differences between theories and laws, and that pertaining to well-trained scientists as being detached from personal, social, and cultural values. Half of the sample disagreed on inventing theories and laws and the diversity of Scientists' methods and also rejected teaching a variety of methods and the influence of personal beliefs on Scientists' observations. No significant differences among students' views by academic level or universities were found, except that second-level students have more informed views than fifth-level students, and the UHB and JU students' views were more informed than IMSIU students. The authors recommend developing those NOS concepts which students had shortcomings in the sequential teachers' preparation programmes and suggest recognising chemistry department faculty members' attitudes to developing students' NOS concepts. Keywords: attitudes toward teaching NOS, nature of science, university chemistry students, views on science and education (VOSE).

Современные проблемы биобезопасности и перспективы международного сотрудничества

Biological safety is one of the most important components of the overall security system of both individual states and the entire world community. Today it has become quite obvious that the problems of biosafety are more urgent than ever and require the maximum attention of the world community. Against the background of the emergence and spread of diseases caused, as a rule, by dangerous and especially dangerous microorganisms, a number of problems arise in the world not only in the field of health care, but also of a political, social and economic nature. A striking example of this is the COVID 19 coronavirus pandemic that has continued since the end of 2019. The issues related to biosafety in the agricultural sector and ecology are considered. It is obvious that constant monitoring and analysis of a wide range of biosafety problems, early development of measures to minimize the threats of exposure to already known dangerous pathogens not only on human health, but also on the environment, agricultural and food sectors are necessary. The issues related to the development of new research directions that can lead to the creation of biological systems with specified properties and functions that have no analogues in nature are discussed. In research aimed at the development of new biological technologies, to one degree or another related to the production of biological warfare, the primary and mandatory requirement is to ensure the safety of all personnel involved in these works and the availability of well-trained qualified scientists, as well as certified laboratory facilities in which these works are carried out. It is important to constantly pursue the purposeful development of multilateral international cooperation in the field of biosafety, and make creative decisions to ensure it on the territory of the Russian Federation. The importance of Russia’s active international participation in solving existing and potential biological threats within the framework of the Biological and Toxin Weapons Convention (BTWC) and the Collective Security Treaty Organization (CSTO) is noted.

Response: Commentary: System Expansion and Substitution in LCA: A Lost Opportunity of ISO 14044 Amendment 2

Yet, the amendment text is not in line with his interpretation, as pointed out by us and by Schaubroeck et al. (2021). Even if the amendment text is not normative and just informative, consistency and correctness is needed throughout the complete ISO text. Moreover, we are worried by the implication that well-trained scientists interpreted in a different way a text that was intended to provide clarity. We consider ourselves as target audience of these standards, and these are apparently not as "crystal-clear" as Finkbeiner appears to think. Hence, it seems that the amendment has failed in its mission "that it should be clarified, that the "subtraction approach" can also be used as system expansion", as Finkbeiner phrases the amendment's "actual intention". A lost opportunity, after all. Let's hope that future ISO amendments are more consistent, and also understandable to the people who are not familiar with the ISO rules. Attributional & consequential life cycle assessment: definitions, conceptual characteristics and modelling restrictions. Sustainability 13, 7386. https://doi.org/10.3390/su13137386

Leading by Example: The Work of Minister K. K. Shailaja of Kerala State, India in Combating COVID-19

In recent months, much public attention has been given to the women leaders of developed countries who have done well in containing the coronavirus and ensuring a low rate of infection and death. Such leaders include Jacinda Ardern, Prime Minister of New Zealand; Angela Merkel, Chancellor of Germany; Erna Solberg, Prime Minister of Norway; Katrin Jacobsdottir, Prime Minister of Iceland; Sanna Marin, Prime Minister of Finland; and Tsai Ing-wen, President of Taiwan. In addition to their own expertise, these leaders have been fortunate in being able to rely on the support of well-trained public officials and scientists, adequate financial resources, and well-equipped health facilities. Little has been written, however, about women leaders from developing countries who are trying hard to contain the pandemic. Sadly, in Africa, a continent with 54 states, only Namibia and Togo have women prime ministers, while the only African woman president hails from Ethiopia.This paper briefly examines the work of K.K. Shailaja, Minister of Health and Social Welfare of the state of Kerala in India, and proposes how lessons from her work could be useful for other parts of the developing world, especially in Africa.

Set up and management of a Data Science faculty at Shiga University

Shiga University opened the first data science faculty in Japan in April 2017. Beginning with an undergraduate class of 100 students, the Department has since established a Master's degree programme with 20 students in each annual intake. This is the first data science faculty in Japan and the University intends to retain this leading position, the Department is well-placed to do so. The faculty closely monitors international trends concerning data science and Artificial Intelligence (AI) and adapt its education and research accordingly. The genesis of this department marks a change in Japan's attitudes towards dealing with information and reflects a wider, global understanding of the need for further research in this area. Shiga University's Data Science department seeks to produce well-trained data scientists who demonstrate a good balance of knowledge and skills in each of the three key areas of data science.

How can we recognize facade journals?

How can we recognize facade journals?

GDINA and CDM Packages in R

ABSTRACTWe review the GIDNA and CDM packages in R for fitting cognitive diagnosis / diagnostic classification models. We first provide a summary of their core capabilities and then use both simulated and real data to compare their functionalities in practice. We found that the most relevant routines in the two packages appear to be more similar than different with the Shiny R app of GDINA making the program usage very user-friendly for key tasks. However, working with complex parametric latent-variable models in both packages will always be a task best suited for well-trained data scientists

Abstract C14: The Florida ReTOOL Program: Creating a training bridge for the next generation of biomedical scientists

Abstract Background and Objective: There is a need to develop a cadre of racially and ethnically diverse, well-trained scientists to: (1) increase the capacity for scientific research among underserved populations; (2) address cultural appropriateness of the conceptualization, design and implementation of research ideas; (3) effectively and respectfully deliver health care interventions for diverse populations; and (4) eliminate health disparities. To achieve our long-term goal of increasing the pool of minority cancer researchers, the objective of the Florida Cancer Research Training Opportunities for Outstanding Leaders (ReTOOL) program is to develop, promote and sustain an independent, competitive cancer research training program that creates opportunities and promotes careers in cancer research for underrepresented minority (URM) students. The ReTOOL program trains URM students from University of Florida (UF), Florida A&M University (FAMU) and Bethune-Cookman University (BCU) at UF Health Cancer Center (UFHCC). Research Strategy: Based on over 10 years research training experiences for URM students in Florida, our strategy includes: (1) partnership between a minority institution and a comprehensive cancer center, with the training occurring at the cancer center; (2) dedicated mentor pool of nationally recognized scientists who are committed to diversity and have expertise in the area of basic, behavioral or clinical sciences; (3) committed faculty advisors at the home (minority) institutions who provide preparatory training and continuous mentoring for trainees; (4) a culturally responsive staff at the cancer center to assist trainees effectively navigate the resources at the cancer center and provide support outside academic/professional development; (5) an effective recruitment process that includes rigorous screening process and orientation; (6) clear requirements and expectations for the training program; (7) cradle to grave system to support trainees; and (8) trainee tracking and evaluation. The ReTOOL program focuses on successfully bridging URM students to graduate or medical school and supporting the trainees throughout their career. The program includes: (i) Basic ReTOOL 12-week summer training, funded by the US Department of Defense, for URM students without research experience; (ii) Academy I ReTOOL 12-week summer training, funded by the National Cancer Institute and UFHCC, for continuous/subsequent training of Basic ReTOOL alumni; (iii) Academy II ReTOOL 1-year post-baccalaureate training (if needed), funded by the UFHCC, to bridge ReTOOL alumni to graduate/medical school; and (iv) triad continuous mentoring by ReTOOL program director, FAMU/BCU minority institution faculty advisor and UF faculty mentor. Results: 19 URM students successfully completed the program between 2012 and 2015. The scholarly achievements of the program include 20 completed projects by URM students, 12 published scientific abstracts presented at national/international conferences, 3 publications, 3 publications in progress, 3 grant awards based on the ReTOOL program, and 12 student recognitions/awards. Six students have been admitted to graduate/medical schools, including UF, FAMU, Duke University, Indiana University and Howard University. 2 students have just been admitted to the Academy II ReTOOL 1-year post-baccalaureate training at UF. The ReTOOL program has also led to an increase in cancer health disparities research at UF, especially among the ReTOOL mentors. According to a ReTOOL mentee: “The growth that I have made is without a doubt beneficial to me progressing towards the next chapter in my life.” A ReTOOL mentor stated in his evaluation, “Rewarding opportunity to teach and mentor minority students in the field of prostate cancer.” Conclusion: Developing and sustaining the interests of URM students in biomedical science requires a comprehensive and sustainable approach, as seen in the ReTOOL program. The success of the ReTOOL program has led to a training model for diversity in graduate programs at UF and currently being adopted by multiple departments at UF. Citation Format: Folakemi T. Odedina, Merry Jennifer Markham, Renee Reams, Bereket Mochona, Dixon Alma, Nguyen Jennifer, Gilbert Lauren. The Florida ReTOOL Program: Creating a training bridge for the next generation of biomedical scientists. [abstract]. In: Proceedings of the Eighth AACR Conference on The Science of Health Disparities in Racial/Ethnic Minorities and the Medically Underserved; Nov 13-16, 2015; Atlanta, GA. Philadelphia (PA): AACR; Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 2016;25(3 Suppl):Abstract nr C14.

Sharing science

Scientists around the world benefit from sharing scientific data, lab notes, and preliminary papers, as well as traditional, formal scientific papers. Institutional repositories (IR) are open spaces for scientists to deposit their work. Doing so could potentially spark new collaborations, allowing scientists and scholars to build cross-institutional capacity. However, scientists must trust that the repository is secure, and they must understand copyright law and protections. Many African nations are at a crossroads: poised to solve major problems with well-trained scientists, yet stymied by expensive and unpredictable ICT. Many African scientists are also wary of the Internet due to rampant scams and fraud. This paper describes current African ICT development, reports on findings from a study about ICT, databases, and IRs in Ghana, and concludes with recommendations for expanding the use of IRs.

The spatial distribution of innovation: evidence on the role of academic quality for seven European countries

The quality of academic research and research undertaken at public laboratories is an important determinant of successful technology transfer. Corporate innovativeness may benefit considerably from scientific discoveries at universities or public laboratories and from the availability of locally well-trained scientists and graduates. The extent to which quality matters is investigated for 86 European regions in seven countries between 1997 and 2007. We find that regions hosting research departments at the forefront of science produce significantly more inventions and more innovations, whereas the mere presence of R&D personnel in universities has no significant impact. The production of patents in high-technology domains instead does benefit from the presence of R&D personnel in public laboratories. These results complement the existing evidence on the relationship between public research and spatial distribution of innovation.

Wooing sea turtles back to China

I agree with most of the observations in the article “Physics in China,” by Charles Day (Physics Today, March 2010, page 33), but I would like to provide some supplementary information and share my experience.Fundamental changes in science are taking place in China. The changes come partly from China’s growing economy and increased government support and partly from the return of Chinese physicists educated overseas.The current trend for those young Chinese physicists, possibly including me, is to return to their home country. Those who study abroad and then return to China are called haigui. Hai means sea; gui means returning and sounds the same as the Chinese word for turtle. People therefore call a returning Chinese scientist haigui, or sea turtle. Right now the world economy is in such a condition that governments and universities in many countries are seeing budget cuts and an oversupply of graduate students, so the job situation for Chinese physicists abroad is not good. Most of them have been stuck in postdoc positions for years. Those well-trained scientists could be a force in China’s future development.To provide some incentives for haiguis, the Chinese government started the so-called Hundred Talent program in 1994. It aimed to attract 100 Chinese scientists back to China by the year 2000. Because of its success, the program was continued, and by 2004 more than 700 haiguis had returned.The incentives for return are good. The Chinese Academy of Sciences’ Institute of Physics provides as much as CNY 570 000 (approximately $84 000) as a housing allowance and gives research grants up to CNY 2 million. The institute also offers postdocs an annual salary of CNY 180 000. The average salary in Beijing is about CNY 48 000 per year; the Hundred Talents amount would allow new postdoctoral fellows like me to enjoy a higher standard of living in Beijing than in Boston.The Hundred Talent program has attracted mostly postdocs, as faculty salaries at Chinese universities are still much lower than at their overseas counterparts. To aim the program at a higher level of expertise, the Chinese government launched a much more ambitious plan, the Thousand Talent program, in 2009. Its goal over 5 to 10 years is to attract back from foreign countries 1000 Chinese scientists currently working in academia or as industry experts. The offer includes a tax-free CNY 1 million bonus in addition to the generous salary and research grants.Still, many factors make Chinese physicists reluctant to be sea turtles. One big concern is the complicated bureaucracy involved in working in China. Chinese scientists who are accustomed to working in overseas environments may find the lack of personal connection with the top officials in Chinese universities unfavorable to them and may fear that it will negatively affect promotions and grant applications. In addition, housing prices in China are at an all-time high, so even with the financial incentives of the new programs, household budgets can be very tight. To make ends meet, returning scientists may be distracted from their research by having to find additional sources of income.The current performance-evaluation mechanism in China is also a concern for many haiguis; emphasis is placed on quantity rather than quality. Many institutions have financial reward systems based on publications and journal impact factors, so researchers often write multiple papers on the same topic. Some even publish fake experimental results. For example, in December 2009 the International Union of Crystallography had to retract numerous papers because the more than 70 crystal structures they described had been fabricated by Chinese researchers. Also, generally only a publication’s first and corresponding authors receive the financial reward, which tends to discourage collaboration. Other problems include the lack of international journal subscriptions in Chinese libraries and the difficulty or even lack of information exchange; as is well known, in China one cannot access internet sites such as Google, Wikipedia, YouTube, and the networking site Facebook.Working in physics in China presents both challenges and opportunities. Let us hope the story of Chinese sea turtles will end up being a happy one.© 2010 American Institute of Physics.

Donald R. Korb, OD, FAAO: Clinician Scientist, Colleague, and Teacher

Discovery often begins with a clinical observation that leads to major biomedical discovery. Therefore, well-trained clinical scientists are an important part of the discovery process. Unfortunately, both medicine and optometry have too few well-trained clinician scientists. However, among the few, Dr. Donald Korb stands out as the quintessential optometric clinical scientist. This profile provides insights into the life, thoughts, and unusually productive professional career of Dr. Korb. Of particular interest for many contact lens clinicians is a discussion with Dr. Korb on how some of his clinical observations led to improved diagnostic and treatment procedures.

Report on Status of Regulatory Science at FDA

Frank Torti, MA, MD, MPH, was appointed as the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA)’s first Chief Scientist and Principal Deputy Commissioner on 15 May 2008. Formerly, Dr Torti was an academic oncologist and epidemiologist, most recently as Professor of Medicine and Chair of the Department of Cancer Biology at Wake Forest Medical School. His earlier career was spent at Harvard and Stanford. Dr Torti’s report, with the same title as this Editorial, was issued at the end of February 2009. It clearly builds upon two reports that emanated prior to his appointment. Presuming that this report is intended to be taken seriously, some close review and comment upon it may be justified. Dr Torti builds his mission on five principles, none of which would be questioned by anybody wishing progressive change at FDA: 1. FDA must develop an overarching scientific strategy with an accompanying implementation plan, deliverables, timetables and budget; 2. FDA scientific strategy must be pre-emptive; 3. FDA must maintain and enhance its infrastructure, core expertise and human capital; 4. FDA must tell its story; 5. FDA cannot do it alone. It would be wrong to hold these five principles to the standards of other types of organizations.While the first four might be found in a typical research university or pharmaceutical company, the last (‘‘FDA cannot do it alone’’) distinguishes the special mission of a regulatory organization, and indeed represents a desirable situation (pace those who are deluded in thinking that the Agency conspires with its stakeholders). By analogy, judges often have the warring barristers before them do much of the legal research on points of law, without ceding any judicial ground. Evidently in consultation across the various centres within FDA, a variety of priority projects are then identified in the report and are sorted against these five principles. Here, the report is somewhat ‘retro’ and repetitive of what we have all known for a few years already: for example, overarching scientific priorities include rapid detection of pharmacovigilance signals, development of biomarkers, more efficient clinical designs and analyses, etc. Microbial contamination (a highvisibility issue for both foods and drugs in the US at the moment) appears more than once. An original idea is that an ‘omics’ czar is proposed, to deal with genomic, proteomic andmetabolomic issues across centres and reviewing divisions. This could well be seminal for the development of personalizedmedicine and is consonant with an FDA Science Board emphasis on differential drug response between racial groups. Combination product coordination also receives attention. However, its guru will only be an FDA fellow (essentially a 2-year post-graduate internship within the Agency). Outside interactions (‘‘FDA cannot do it alone’’) are thought to benefit especially the areas of drug-induced liver injury, nano-engineered products, and the development of centres of excellence in collaboration with academia. However, the report states: ‘‘Small biotechnology firms represent a flexible resource. They are operationally and scientifically nimble, and often have capability to devote a large proportion of human capital to a single project. Biotech firms that have an interest in partnering to resolve mission-critical FDA questions will be identified and engaged through contracts and other funding mechanisms.’’ Another opinion might be that the FDA seems oblivious of how small companies work. First, the present financial situation makes it unlikely that there will be any substantive venture capital for biotech for the next 5 years. Moreover, those few companies that survive might be expected to have their own mission-critical questions that will take priority over the FDA’s. It is also telling that this report refers to FDA staff as being ‘‘well-trained physicians and scientists’’, and even that FDA Fellows are ‘‘highly qualified and selected scientists’’; meanwhile, the biotech companies who are going to provide all this help evidently contain ‘‘human capital’’. EDITORIAL Pharm Med 2009; 23 (1): 1-2 1178-2595/09/0001-0001/$49.95/0

Review: A Contract with the Earth, by Newt Gingrich and Terry L. Maple

Review: A Contract with the Earth By Newt Gingrich and Terry L. Maple Reviewed by Byron Anderson Northern Illinois University, USA Newt Gingrich and Terry L. Maple. A Contract with the Earth. Baltimore, MD: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 2007. xv, 222 pp. ISBN-13: 978-0-8018-8780-2 (cloth) US $20. Printed on acid free paper that is at least 30 percent post-consumer waste. A Contract with the Earth is about a new kind of environmentalism, a broad, inclusive approach to thinking about and solving environmental problems. It invokes an entrepreneurial zeal, public–private partnerships, executive leadership, and collaboration between industrial and environmental stakeholders. The book is not a step-by-step plan for implementing the contract, but a more generalized plan that presents five platforms, for example, recruit a generation of well-trained scientists and engineers to address environmental issues, and ten commitments, such as retire or rejuvenate old technologies. While the book encompasses mainstream, democratic values, examples are provided incorporating green enterprise and entrepreneurial environmentalism. The authors, Newt Gingrich, Speaker of the House of Representatives from 1995 to 1999 and former environmental studies professor, and Terry Maple, president and CEO of the Palm Beach Zoo (Florida) and professor of conservation and behavior at the Georgia Institute of Technology, call for an entrepreneurial form of environmentalism that would serve our country, economy, and earth. Gingrich was a guiding force of the Contract with America, a document credited with helping the Republicans gain a majority th of seats in the 104 Congress. A Contract with the Earth is a title meant to attract attention, only this time Gingrich and Maple combine respect for the natural world with mainstream values of the American people, for example, by suggesting that conservation cannot succeed by charity alone and should be designed to appeal to self interest. There is an overriding confidence in the creativity of the American people, open democratic societies, and market-based conservation. Ample examples are provided for each of these. The authors favor reducing carbon in the atmosphere, developing new technologies, committing to science, technology engineering and math education, and creating incentives and rewards. They also believe that conservative views are compatible with environmentalism, and readers are reminded that conservatism has often lead the way for environmental betterment, for example, the actions of Teddy Roosevelt and Gifford Pinchot. The authors are not enamored with today’s political scene and recognize that change is needed. The focus is on mainstream politics; no mention is made of alternative political agendas, such as the Green Party. Mainstream political agendas focus too much on short-term goals to allow for the long-term focus of the new environmentalism. On the other hand, the authors are optimistic about “humanity’s ability to restore and renew the Electronic Green Journal , Issue 26, Spring 2008 ISSN: 1076-7975

Educating the Next Generation of Scientists: Lessons Learned from 17 Years of ASPET SURF Support

The need for well‐trained scientists has never been greater. The biotechnology sector now accounts for more than a third of the world economy. What can be done to insure an adequate workforce?The University of Arizona has received support from ASPET for Institutional Summer Undergraduate Research Fellowships (SURF) since 1991. This presentation will describe how our undergraduate research program has evolved over the past seventeen years and will provide information on outcomes. Suggestions will be given for those who wish to initiate similar activities with undergraduate students.This work was funded by ASPET (no grant number).

Message from Griffin P. Rodgers, M.D., M.A.C.P., Director, NIDDK, on the Institute’s Obesity Research

Message from Griffin P. Rodgers, M.D., M.A.C.P., Director, NIDDK, on the Institute’s Obesity Research

ON SCIENCE, ECONOMICS AND EDUCATION

In their public statements, politicians and leaders of most developed countries espouse the doctrine that the growth of their respective economies is highly dependent on innovations resulting from scientific research and development. Many countries support science directly or indirectly using a variety of subsidies, grants, contracts, or other financial mechanisms. But, the lion's share of support for research and development is usually provided by industry. The statistic often quoted is the percentage of gross domestic product (GDP) spent on research and development (R&D) in science and technology. This number is generally between 0.5 and 2.5% for the developed countries, and for most of these countries the percentage expenditure has remained relatively constant or perhaps increased slightly over the last decade. An anomaly occurred in the US during the early 1960's when R&D spending spiked upward as a result of the launch of Sputnik in 1957. Well-trained scientists and engineers are needed to carry out R&D; therefore the production of new scientists is clearly at the heart of the progress that is made in research. Again, many countries expend a small, but in some cases increasing, percentage of their GDP to support education in science and mathematics. It has been noted that US students have lagged behind their counterparts in a number of countries when the metric is mathematics and science scores of early grade students. Also of concern is the fact that number of PhD degrees granted by the US universities in physics has been relatively constant for several years and significantly lower that the number a decade ago. The US has discussed this problem often, and a new study by the National Academies(1) observes that maintaining competitiveness on the international economic stage will require a capable scientific workforce to develop innovations leading to patents and intellectual property. This study cites the inadequacies in the US systems of science and education and recommends strongly that both be strengthened through investment of increased funding.

Secret Weapons and World War II: Japan in the Shadow of Big Science (review)

Reviewed by: Secret Weapons and World War II: Japan in the Shadow of Big Science Loyd E. Lee Secret Weapons and World War II: Japan in the Shadow of Big Science. By Walter E. Grunden. Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 2005. ISBN 0-7006-1383-8. Photographs. Appendix. Notes. Bibliography. Index. Pp. xi, 334. $39.95. The title of Secret Weapons and World War II belies the full achievement [End Page 267] of this important book. This is not just a book about secret weapons, nor only about Japan's secret weapons. It is instead, a comparison of the scientific and technological programs of all the major Allied and Axis powers with developments in Japan. This is "Big Science," the linking of government, universities, research institutes, strategic planners, and economic institutions into large-scale coordinated projects. Opening with a chapter on mobilizing science and technology, Grunden continues by devoting fully half of the 204 pages of text to summarizing four key areas of prewar and wartime weaponry research among the belligerents: nuclear physics, radar and other electronic devices, rockets and jet propulsion, and chemical and biological weapons. The other half is a detailed discussion of what Japanese scientists did in each of these areas. Notoriously, especially in the case of Unit 731, it was in the fields of chemical and biological weapons that Japan made the most progress. These five chapters plus epilogue are fully accessible to upper division undergraduates with no special scientific background. The role of science in the history of the Second World War, and especially as it relates to wartime strategy and mobilization, is too often a stepchild of historiography. In the case of Japan, it is mentioned, if at all, only in passing. Walter Grunden's Secret Weapons goes a long way toward correcting this problem. He brings to the task the necessary linguistic skills, archival and personal research, plus an understanding of science, to relate a persuasive narrative. Unlike the United States, the United Kingdom, Germany, and the Soviet Union, Japan did not have the mature economy, the requisite material resources or the bureaucratic infrastructure to support "Big Science" programs. Japan had many well-trained scientists, but they were isolated from the military, underfunded and generally ignored. In addition, strategic long-term technological preparation suffered from rivalry between the army and the navy and a belief in a short-war strategy. Grunden concludes, however, that a more coherent science program would not have altered the outcome of the war. On the other hand, the shock of losing the war and the knowledge of how important science had been in Allied victories led Japan's leadership to reevaluate their wartime course, building the basis for the country's later successes. Nearly half of the book includes an extensive appendix, notes, and bibliography. The appendix contains twenty-two tables (thirty-five pages) of military research institutions (army, air, and navy), principal researchers, their projects and institutional affiliations, laboratory equipment, nomenclature, various radar systems, rocket ordnance, missiles, bacteriological bombs, the careers of Unit 731 personnel, and more, which alone makes the book necessary for the serious researcher of Japanese science in World War Two. There are also extensive notes, a bibliography of archival collections, unpublished primary documents, and the usual, and very useful, list of articles, books and monographs from all of the countries discussed in the text. Japanese language material is romanized. Loyd E. Lee State University of New York at New Paltz New Paltz, New York Copyright © 2006 Society for Military History

Scientists: ignored gold

There was a time when rumours that “there's gold in them thar hills” started a mass movement of people eager to make a fortune in the West. Word that there were diamonds lying in some distant mountains led to a sudden interest in remote parts of the globe. The discovery of salt and spices led to exploratory journeys and wars that recoloured the political map. In those days of colonialism and imperialism, nations and individuals fought to gain control over limited and valuable assets. Their exploitation fuelled the rise of empires—Western nations as well as companies—and paid for the enormous increase in living standards now enjoyed by the citizens of developed countries. Today, the world's natural resources are for the most part under solid control, thus new wealth is unlikely to come from geological surveys. Instead, further economic progress and the improvement of living standards will largely depend on the latest high‐value commodity: scientific skills. Economic analysts have come to the same conclusion: the countries that make best use of knowledge will come out ahead. How to mine this resource …