Well-known Taxa Research Articles

Perspectives on the Grey Zone of Species Delimitation With Notes on Invertebrates in the Marine Environment

Defining species boundaries, or delimiting species, is a complex and often difficult task. Indeed, when such studies incorporate approaches that consider evolutionary mechanisms, there is much to be learned about species diversity and how the processes that play critical roles in speciation can impact species delineation. In 2021, a virtual workshop on species delimitation was held at the Smithsonian Institution National Museum of Natural History to train natural history scientists and taxonomists on the appropriate analytical tools that can be used to help delimit species when using molecular data. This perspective highlights some of the main themes discussed during that workshop while detailing three processes that can challenge any species delimitation study. Specifically, we discuss incomplete lineage sorting, gene flow, and population structure when delimiting species boundaries using molecular data. We highlight empirical studies and methodological approaches that have successfully met these challenges under various scenarios. Finally, we provide recommendations and considerations for undertaking species delimitation studies in a variety of taxa. To this end, we recommend that taxonomists fully embrace process-based species delimitation, which can provide important insights into speciation in their study systems. For those developing analytical approaches, we hope they consider incorporating less well-known taxa, such as marine invertebrates, into method testing. Marine invertebrates encompass many dark taxa across the tree of life yet represent the majority of animal phyla, many of which are vulnerable to extinction due to global ocean change. Thus, advancing species delimitation to address taxonomic revisions in these organisms will support conservation decisions on keystone ecosystems. Furthermore, the diversity of their life history strategies, the lack of obvious barriers to gene flow in the ocean environment, and their occurrence in isolated habitat patches can better inform our knowledge of speciation and the evolutionary processes that play a role in generating diversity in nature.

Opportunities and limitations of large open biodiversity occurrence databases in the context of a Marine Ecosystem Assessment of the Southern Ocean

The Southern Ocean is a productive and biodiverse region, but it is also threatened by anthropogenic pressures. Protecting the Southern Ocean should start with well-informed Marine Ecosystem Assessments of the Southern Ocean (MEASO) being performed, a process that will require biodiversity data. In this context, open geospatial biodiversity databases such as OBIS and GBIF provide good avenues, through aggregated geo-referenced taxon locations. However, like most aggregated databases, these might suffer from sampling biases, which may hinder their usability for a MEASO. Here, we assess the quality and distribution of OBIS and GBIF data in the context of a MEASO. We found strong spatial, temporal and taxonomic biases in these data, with several biases likely emerging from the remoteness and inaccessibility of the Southern Ocean (e.g., lack of data in the dark and ice-covered winter, most data describing charismatic or well-known taxa, and most data along ship routes between research stations and neighboring continents). Our identification of sampling biases helps us provide practical recommendations for future data collection, mobilization, and analyses.

Plants Alkaloids Based Compound as Therapeutic Potential for Neurodegenerative

Although while getting a restful night's sleep is essential for your mental and physical health, insomnia is very prevalent. More people are turning to complementary and alternative therapies to treat or prevent sleeplessness. For hundreds of years, herbal treatments like valerian, passionflower, lemon balm, lavender, and California poppy have been utilized successfully. After using these herbal medicines, sleep latency was reduced and subjective and objective measures of sleep quality improved. Their sedative and sleep-inducing effects are caused by interactions with several neurotransmitter systems in the brain, according to molecular research. The plant species can be divided into 76 different genera and 32 different families, with the Asteraceae (24.2%) and Lamiaceae (21.1%) being the most prevalent subgroups. Leaves (29%) and flowers (27%), respectively, are used to make the majority of infusions (70%) and decoctions (25%). Just the most well-known taxa—out of the 106 known—are treated here (A. arvensis L., C. nepeta L., C. monogyna Jacq., H. lupulus L., L. nobilis L., L. angustifolia Mill., M. sylvestris L., M. chamomilla L., M. officinalis L., O. basilicum L., P. rhoeas L., P. somniferum L., R. officinalis L., T. platyphyllus Scop., and V. officinalis L.). Further study is required to confirm the therapeutic potential of these substitutes and define the mechanism of action of bioactive compounds because only seven of the fifteen species chosen have been investigated for pharmacological activity as hypnotic-sedatives.

Coluber korros Lesson, 1831 and Coluber korros Schlegel, 1837 (Reptilia: Squamata: Colubridae): there is a korros too many in the family

The purpose of this paper is to solve an overlooked nomenclatural problem involving two taxa of Colubridae, both described as Coluber korros. The first one is Coluber korros Schlegel, 1837, now Ptyas korros, a well-known and widespread species in south-east Asia. Its senior homonym is Coluber korros Lesson, 1831, a long forgotten taxon. Furthermore, these taxa are undoubtedly non-conspecific. We tentatively identify the holotype of this latter taxon as a large specimen of Coelognathus radiatus (F. Boie, 1827) and we specify its type locality as "Region of Kolkata, West Bengal State, eastern India" (the same specification of type-locality can hence be applied to the elapid Naja kaouthia Lesson, 1831). Nevertheless, following the strict principle of priority, Coluber korros Lesson, 1831 has priority over Coluber korros Schlegel, 1837. Based on the Code, we use Article 23.9 on reversal of precedence in order to preserve the use of the well-known taxon Coluber korros Schlegel, 1837 (now Ptyas korros) against its senior primary homonym Coluber korros Lesson, 1831. Finally, we consider Coluber boncorage Lesson, 1831 to be a nomen dubium.

Global economic costs of herpetofauna invasions

Biological invasions by amphibian and reptile species (i.e. herpetofauna) are numerous and widespread, having caused severe impacts on ecosystems, the economy and human health. However, there remains no synthesised assessment of the economic costs of these invasions. Therefore, using the most comprehensive database on the economic costs of invasive alien species worldwide (InvaCost), we analyse the costs caused by invasive alien herpetofauna according to taxonomic, geographic, sectoral and temporal dimensions, as well as the types of these costs. The cost of invasive herpetofauna totaled at 17.0 billion US$ between 1986 and 2020, divided split into 6.3 billion US$ for amphibians, 10.4 billion US$ for reptiles and 334 million US$ for mixed classes. However, these costs were associated predominantly with only two species (brown tree snake Boiga irregularis and American bullfrog Lithobates catesbeianus), with 10.3 and 6.0 billion US$ in costs, respectively. Costs for the remaining 19 reported species were relatively minor (< 0.6 billion US$), and they were entirely unavailable for over 94% of known invasive herpetofauna worldwide. Also, costs were positively correlated with research effort, suggesting research biases towards well-known taxa. So far, costs have been dominated by predictions and extrapolations (79%), and thus empirical observations for impact were relatively scarce. The activity sector most affected by amphibians was authorities-stakeholders through management (> 99%), while for reptiles, impacts were reported mostly through damages to mixed sectors (65%). Geographically, Oceania and Pacific Islands recorded 63% of total costs, followed by Europe (35%) and North America (2%). Cost reports have generally increased over time but peaked between 2011 and 2015 for amphibians and 2006 to 2010 for reptiles. A greater effort in studying the costs of invasive herpetofauna is necessary for a more complete understanding of invasion impacts of these species. We emphasise the need for greater control and prevention policies concerning the spread of current and future invasive herpetofauna.

Metabarcoding of canopy arthropods reveals negative impacts of forestry insecticides on community structure across multiple taxa

Abstract Insecticides used to combat outbreaks of forest defoliators can adversely affect non‐target arthropods. Forestry insecticides typically suppress Lepidoptera larvae which are the cornerstone of the canopy community of deciduous oak forests. The abrupt removal of this dominant component of the food web could have far‐reaching implications for forest ecosystems, yet it is rarely investigated in practice owing to several methodological shortcomings. The taxonomic impediment and the biased nature of arthropod sampling techniques particularly impede the assessment of insecticide impacts on diverse communities. To tackle this issue, we propose an experimental approach combining sampling by pyrethrum knockdown and species determination via DNA metabarcoding, using community subsampling to derive estimates of species abundances. We applied this protocol to investigate the short‐term effects of the insecticides diflubenzuron (DFB) and Bacillus thuringiensis var. kurstaki (BTK) on canopy‐dwelling arthropod communities in German oak woodlands. Our approach allowed us to detect most of the diversity and integrate species abundances in our analyses. By classifying arthropod species into assemblages based on their expected sensitivity rather than coarse taxonomic groupings, we could unveil substantial effects of DFB across multiple taxa 5 weeks after application. Although strong effects on single species appear related to direct toxicity, substantial impacts of DFB on parasitoids and xylophagous beetles suggest that anti‐defoliator treatments can have previously unsuspected indirect effects on some components of forest arthropod communities. The impacts of BTK on community structure were consistent with that of DFB though much weaker. Synthesis and applications. Comparing diversity patterns in the arthropod communities of sprayed and unsprayed oak canopies, our results show that selective insecticides can alter species diversity in presumably non‐sensitive taxa. Even though the ecological significance of these impacts has yet to be assessed in an operational setting, their existence calls for increased regulatory scrutiny on indirect effects. As community approaches become more attainable with the rapid development of DNA metabarcoding, we suggest the inclusion of community‐level end points as regulatory requirements for the approval of forest‐use insecticides.

Ethnobotany, Phytochemistry, Pharmacology and Nutritional Potential of Medicinal Plants from Asteraceae Family

The Asteraceae family has a worldwide distribution with a special focus on the Mediterranean, Eastern Europe, and Asia Minor. It contains approximately 33,000 plant species with over “1600 to 1700” genera worldwide in tropical and subtropical climates. Over the centuries, Asteraceae plants have been used as medicinal plants throughout the world. There are several well-known taxa in the Asteraceae family, including lettuce, chicory, artichoke, daisy, and dandelion, which have been used for centuries in food and medicine. The family members are quite diverse, but they all share a common chemical composition. For example, inulin is a natural polysaccharide with strong prebiotic properties and is found in all species. The majority of species are annual, biennial, or perennial herbaceous plants, and they can be found all over the world. This family includes astringents, anti-inflammatory drugs, diaphoretics, nerve tonics, laxatives, wound healing products, blood flow disorders, headaches, pains, flatulence, dysentery, hemorrhoids, ulcers, and cachexia-causing illnesses. In addition to their anti-inflammatory, analgesic, and antipyretic properties, some of these species also possess high antioxidant properties, as demonstrated in studies using extracts of roots, stems, bark, leaves, flowers, fruits, and seeds. The Asteraceae species whose natural antioxidant properties have the greatest potential for use in the medicine, cosmetics, and food industries are identified. Asteraceae species have been reported to contain flavonoids, phenolic acids, coumarins, monoterpenoids, sesquiterpenes, diterpenes, and triterpenes, and sterols. In this way, various species of Asteraceae plants have been identified and collected that have proven effective and useful for treating a variety of human diseases. This manuscript describes the medicinal properties along with the peculiar phytoconstituents and pharmacological properties and nutritional potential of various Asteraceae plants

Phylogenetic relationships of Origanum taxa (Lamiaceae) from Greece: Initial insights from molecular and morphological data

The genus Origanum is a well-known culinary, aromatic and medicinal taxon of the Lamiaceae family. Despite the notable progress that has been made in Lamiaceae phylogenetics and in the Nepetoideae subfamily, the genus remains insufficiently investigated concerning its interspecies evolutionary relationships. The present study provides initial insights into the phylogenetic relationships and sectional classification of Greek taxa, based on three nuclear and five chloroplast DNA regions with eight taxa and 68 samples in total. The molecular results showed all (steno) endemic species as monophyletic with high or absolute support. Additionally, O. calcaratum?s scattered distribution between three phytogeographical areas in the Aegean Archipelago is also confirmed molecularly. The molecular results also verify the close affinity of certain sections; thus, sec. Majorana is placed as a sister group of sec. Chilocalyx and sec. Amaracus with sec. Anatolicon. However, based on species sectional classification, the groups from this study differ from the sections previously recognized. Such species belong to sections Amaracus and Anatolicon, where they are either mixed together or are grouped with other sections. Regarding morphological analysis, certain non-vegetative characters are highlighted as important for the delimitation of most Greek taxa, while characters related to the calyx, when combined, are very useful for the delimitation of sections.

First record of an erymid lobster (Crustacea, Decapoda) from the upper Bajocian of Northwest Bulgaria

Fossil chela of an erymid lobster from a single locality of the upper Bajocian in the Western Fore-Balkan Mts (NW Bulgaria) was studied. Two segments of the thoracic appendages, probably belonging to one individual, were described: 1) P1 propodus with partially preserved pollex and dactylus; and 2) P1 carpus and P1 merus attached. These elements of the first pair of pereiopods of a lobster were identified as Eryma compressum (Eudes-Deslongchamps, 1842). Eryma compressum a is well-known taxon from numerous Jurassic localities in Europe but has not been recorded in Bulgaria to date. Therefore, albeit being an isolated finding with only a few elements, the Bulgarian example contributes to the overall record of European erymid faunas from the Middle Jurassic, and especially in Eastern Europe, from where only a few erymids have been reported.

COPLA, a taxonomic classifier of plasmids

BackgroundPlasmids are mobile genetic elements, key in the dissemination of antibiotic resistance, virulence determinants and other adaptive traits in bacteria. Obtaining a robust method for plasmid classification is necessary to better understand the genetics and epidemiology of many pathogens. Until now, plasmid classification systems focused on specific traits, which limited their precision and universality. The definition of plasmid taxonomic units (PTUs), based on average nucleotide identity metrics, allows the generation of a universal plasmid classification scheme, applicable to all bacterial taxa. Here we present COPLA, a software able to assign plasmids to known and novel PTUs, based on their genomic sequence.ResultsWe implemented an automated pipeline able to assign a given plasmid DNA sequence to its cognate PTU, and assessed its performance using a sample of 1000 unclassified plasmids. Overall, 41% of the samples could be assigned to a previously defined PTU, a number that reached 63% in well-known taxa such as the Enterobacterales order. The remaining plasmids represent novel PTUs, indicating that a large fraction of plasmid backbones is still uncharacterized.ConclusionsCOPLA is a bioinformatic tool for universal, species-independent, plasmid classification. Offered both as an automatable pipeline and an open web service, COPLA will help bacterial geneticists and clinical microbiologists to quickly classify plasmids.

The Plants of the Asteraceae Family as Agents in the Protection of Human Health.

The Asteraceae family is one of the largest flowering plant families, with over 1600 genera and 2500 species worldwide. Some of its most well-known taxa are lettuce, chicory, artichoke, daisy and dandelion. The members of the Asteraceae have been used in the diet and for medicine for centuries. Despite their wide diversity, most family members share a similar chemical composition: for example, all species are good sources of inulin, a natural polysaccharide with strong prebiotic properties. They also demonstrate strong antioxidant, anti-inflammatory and antimicrobial activity, as well as diuretic and wound healing properties. Their pharmacological effects can be attributed to their range of phytochemical compounds, including polyphenols, phenolic acids, flavonoids, acetylenes and triterpenes. One such example is arctiin: a ligand with numerous antioxidant, antiproliferative and desmutagenic activities. The family is also a source of sesquiterpene lactones: the secondary metabolites responsible for the bitter taste of many plants. This mini review examines the current state of literature regarding the positive effect of the Asteraceae family on human health.

&lt;strong&gt;Host plant discrimination through mobility parameters by eriophyoid mites&lt;/strong&gt;

Eriophyoidea is a well-known mite taxon of economic importance. Due to their small size, elucidating many of their bio-ecological aspects becomes a challenge. These mites are obligatory plant feeders, with high host specificity and vagrant (free living) and non-vagrant (part or whole life cycle in a host) lifestyles. The mobility (distance walked - mm, resting time - s, and number of stops) of these mites on host and non-host plant species has been investigated. Eriophyoid species were submitted to walking tests on host and non-host plants using five vagrant species and five non-vagrant species. The walking was recorded with video tracking (ViewPoint) for ten minutes. Twenty replicates were performed for each treatment (eriophyoid species and plant). There was a difference in the behavioral response of the species studied in relation to the hosts. When the species were grouped by ecological lifestyle (vagrant and non-vagrant), non-vagrant eriophyoids presented a higher mobility (higher distance walked, less resting time) than vagrant eriophyoids on their respective hosts. There was no difference in the mobility of vagrant and non-vagrant species on non-host plants. The absence of a pattern of behavioral response among the species tested here indicates that more factors are involved in the host identification and acceptance process.

Gomphonella olivacea (Bacillariophyceae) – a new phylogenetic position for a well-known taxon, its typification, new species and combinations

Background and aims – Within the project “German Barcode of Life – Diatoms” common diatoms of German waters were routinely isolated and cultivated. In order to understand the taxonomy and phylogeny of the genus Gomphonema, one of the most common taxa of Central Europe, known currently either under the name Gomphonema olivaceum in Europe or Gomphoneis olivacea in America, was studied.&#x0D; Methods – Twenty unialgal strains were established from five different water bodies in Germany and one from Lake Balaton, Hungary, which supplied molecular data (18S V4 and rbcL) besides morphometric and ultrastructural data. In addition, on eight populations from different water bodies including the type from Denmark, morphometric and micromorphological studies by light and scanning electron microscopy were performed.&#x0D; Key results – Molecular and micromorphological data show that the target taxon neither belongs to Gomphonema Ehrenb. nor to Gomphoneis Cleve. By reinstating the genus name Gomphonella Rabenh., the nomenclatural and taxonomic enigma of this taxon is solved, and with the presentation of the type by Hornemann the authorship of the epithet is clarified. Molecular data for the unialgal strains and several environmental clones show that there is more diversity in the Gomphonella olivacea clade than can be identified morphologically. In addition, the establishment of the new species Gomphonella coxiae and Gomphonella acsiae is supported. The molecular data classified Gomphonella species as belonging to the Cymbellales but not to the Gomphonemataceae. In addition, molecular data put Gomphoneis tegelensis R.Jahn &amp; N.Abarca also into Gomphonella. In order to make the genera Gomphoneis and Gomphonema monophyletic, their astigmate members are transferred to Gomphonella.&#x0D; Conclusions – The results clarify that the gomphonemoid outline is not restricted to the family Gomphonemataceae but seem to be distributed across the entire order Cymbellales. This is shown in this paper for the revived genus Gomphonella, which contains the astigmate group of Gomphoneis and Gomphonema besides the longly disputed G. olivacea. Only a polyphasic approach, combining molecular and micromorphological data for taxonomy, nomenclatural evaluation, and observations from clonal cultures can reveal the full intricacies of evolutionary relations.

Biological adaptations in the Arctic cervid, the reindeer (Rangifer tarandus).

The reindeer is an Arctic species that exhibits distinctive biological characteristics, for which the underlying genetic basis remains largely unknown. We compared the genomes of reindeer against those of other ruminants and nonruminant mammals to reveal the genetic basis of light arrhythmicity, high vitamin D metabolic efficiency, the antler growth trait of females, and docility. We validate that two reindeer vitamin D metabolic genes (CYP27B1 and POR) show signs of positive selection and exhibit higher catalytic activity than those of other ruminants. A mutation upstream of the reindeer CCND1 gene endows an extra functional binding motif of the androgen receptor and thereby may result in female antlers. Furthermore, a mutation (proline-1172→threonine) in reindeer PER2 results in loss of binding ability with CRY1, which may explain circadian arrhythmicity in reindeer.

Large-scale ruminant genome sequencing provides insights into their evolution and distinct traits.

The ruminants are one of the most successful mammalian lineages, exhibiting morphological and habitat diversity and containing several key livestock species. To better understand their evolution, we generated and analyzed de novo assembled genomes of 44 ruminant species, representing all six Ruminantia families. We used these genomes to create a time-calibrated phylogeny to resolve topological controversies, overcoming the challenges of incomplete lineage sorting. Population dynamic analyses show that population declines commenced between 100,000 and 50,000 years ago, which is concomitant with expansion in human populations. We also reveal genes and regulatory elements that possibly contribute to the evolution of the digestive system, cranial appendages, immune system, metabolism, body size, cursorial locomotion, and dentition of the ruminants.

Phylogeny and characteristics of ruminants

Ruminant Genomics Ruminants are a diverse group of mammals that includes families containing well-known taxa such as deer, cows, and goats. However, their evolutionary relationships have been contentious, as have the origins of their distinctive digestive systems and headgear, including antlers and horns (see the Perspective by Ker and Yang). To understand the relationships among ruminants, L. Chen et al. sequenced 44 species representing 6 families and performed a phylogenetic analysis. From this analysis, they were able to resolve the phylogeny of many genera and document incomplete lineage sorting among major clades. Interestingly, they found evidence for large population reductions among many taxa starting at approximately 100,000 years ago, coinciding with the migration of humans out of Africa. Examining the bony appendages on the head—the so-called headgear—Wang et al. describe specific evolutionary changes in the ruminants and identify selection on cancer-related genes that may function in antler development in deer. Finally, Lin et al. take a close look at the reindeer genome and identify the genetic basis of adaptations that allow reindeer to survive in the harsh conditions of the Arctic. Science , this issue p. [eaav6202][1], p. [eaav6335][2], p. [eaav6312][3]; see also p. [1130][4] [1]: /lookup/doi/10.1126/science.aav6202 [2]: /lookup/doi/10.1126/science.aav6335 [3]: /lookup/doi/10.1126/science.aav6312 [4]: /lookup/doi/10.1126/science.aax5182

Integrative taxonomy: ghosts of past, present and future

AbstractDescribing species has been a formal, intellectually rich and influential applied and basic area of study for many of the past 260 years. While formally described eukaryotic diversity still falls short of estimated eukaryotic species diversity by many hundreds of thousands of species, some recent accounts have suggested a growing number of taxonomists are within reach of describing all extant species. We present a case study that illustrates, to the contrary, a recent ‘taxonomic impediment’ in part attributable to derogation of taxonomy as a scientific discipline: contemporary practice has re-interpreted taxonomy largely as an endeavour in enumerating species. We argue that challenges lie in (1) a poor understanding of taxonomy's epistemology; (2) excessive displacement of interest toward ecological or molecular studies; (3) over-interpretation of the contributions of multiple authors describing a species; and (4) perspectives that are strongly influenced by well-known taxa. The historical and recent literature on scyphozoans reveal ghosts of taxonomy's past that persist in the present, but suggest also that a renaissance enabled by integrative taxonomy is possible in the (near) future.

Microbiomes of Top and Sub-Layers of Semi-Arid Soils in North-Eastern Nigeria Are Rich in Firmicutes and Proteobacteria with Surprisingly High Diversity of Rare Species

Borno state is the second largest state in Nigeria with over 70,000 square kilometers of diverse ecosystems including parts of the fertile Lake Chad basin. However, more than 2/3 of this landmass is threatened with drought, advancing desertification and degraded soils. Most restoration efforts involve revegetation, which in the past has met with limited success. Microbial communities of soils play a pivotal role in soil fertility and plant cover. We conducted the first metagenomic amplicon sequencing study, comparing two soil depths to determine whether soil bacteria abundance and diversity in the harsh bare soils were sufficient to sustain greening efforts. The goal was to glean insights to guide microbial inoculant formulation needed in the region. Samples from top (0 - 15 cm) and sub (16 - 65 cm) soils were collected from five strategic locations in the state. Using next generation Illumina sequencing protocols, total DNA extracted directly from the soils was sequenced and analyzed by QIIME. Metadata collected from site showed scorching temperatures of over 46˚C, near zero moisture level and a pH of about 6 for top soil. At 65 cm depth, the temperature averaged 32˚C with a pH of 5 and significantly higher soil moisture of 0.1%. The bacterial community structure was unexpectedly very diverse at both soil depths samples, recording a ChaO1 index ranging from 909 to 4296 and a Shannon diversity range of 3.54 to 6.33. The most abundant phyla in both soil depths were the Firmicutes and Proteobacteria; however the relative abundance of composite lower taxa was strikingly different. Operational taxonomic units and diversity indices were highest for top soils and were dominated by members of resilient groups of Actinobacteria, Firmucutes, Acidobacteria and numerous other less well-known taxa whose individual relative abundance did not exceed 3% of total population. The high diversity and richness of Proteobacteria (at 65 cm depth), some of which are key to soil fertility, suggest that revegetation efforts could be improved by shifting the gradient of these microbiota upwards using shades and micro-irrigation. Soils in semi-arid regions in Nigeria contain numerous operational taxonomic bacterial groups with potential thermophilic and drought genetic resources to be mined. Microbial community structure beneath the top soil appears stable and should be the target sample for the assessments of climatic change impact on microbial community structure in environments like this.

Spirematospermum wetzleri (Heer) Chandler (Zingiberaceae) from the Miocene of Weichang, Hebei Province, North China and the phytogeographic history of the genus

Spirematospermum is a well-known extinct zingiberalean taxon, characterized by trilocular capsules containing many distinctive, spirally striate and arillate seeds. It is frequently found and studied in European Neogene carpological floras, but is scarcely represented in East Asia floras. In this work we recognize a new fossil record of Spirematospermum wetzleri (Heer) Chandler based on the capsules and seeds from the Miocene of Weichang, Hebei Province, North China. These fossils represent the first record of the species in the Miocene of China. Fossil data indicate that Spirematospermum probably originated in the Late Cretaceous of North America or Central Europe. The genus still existed in the Paleocene of North America, but became extinct after that time. However, the genus successively survived in Europe from the Eocene to Pliocene, and flourished luxuriantly during the Oligocene to Miocene. As there was Turgai Strait between Europe and Asia during the Eocene, the genus did not spread to Central Asia and West Siberia until the strait closed in the late Eocene/early Oligocene, and further expanded eastwardly to eastern Siberia, Russia, northern China and central Japan during the Miocene, but became extinct in Asia after the Miocene. The genus contracted its distribution to Europe in the Pliocene, and afterwards it became extinct in the world.

Circumscription of the genus Lepra, a recently resurrected genus to accommodate the "Variolaria"-group of Pertusaria sensu lato (Pertusariales, Ascomycota).

Pertusarialean lichens include more than 300 species belonging to several independent phylogenetic lineages. Only some of these phylogenetic clades have been comprehensively sampled for molecular data, and formally described as genera. Here we present a taxonomic treatment of a group of pertusarialean lichens formerly known as “Pertusaria amara-group”, “Monomurata-group”, or “Variolaria-group”, which includes widespread and well-known taxa such as P. amara, P. albescens, or P. ophthalmiza. We generated a 6-locus data set with 79 OTUs representing 75 species. The distinction of the Variolaria clade is supported and consequently, the resurrection of the genus Lepra is followed. Thirty-five new combinations into Lepra are proposed and the new species Lepra austropacifica is described from mangroves in the South Pacific. Lepra is circumscribed to include species with disciform ascomata, a weakly to non-amyloid hymenial gel, strongly amyloid asci without clear apical amyloid structures, containing 1 or 2, single-layered, thin-walled ascospores. Chlorinated xanthones are not present, but thamnolic and picrolichenic acids occur frequently, as well as orcinol depsides. Seventy-one species are accepted in the genus. Although the distinction of the genus from Pertusaria is strongly supported, the relationships of Lepra remain unresolved and the genus is tentatively placed in Pertusariales incertae sedis.