Well-informed Participants Research Articles

Exploring the impact of awareness on public acceptance of emerging energy technologies: An analysis of the oil palm industry

The adoption of renewable energy technology and the resolution of sustainability challenges hinge on public acceptance. This study explored the public's acceptance of power generation utilizing recycled oil palm waste, a nascent and innovative technology, to discern the impact of increased public awareness on the approval of potentially contentious scientific technology. Through a combined conjoint survey and information treatment experiment, participants from three Northeast Asian countries, Japan (n = 1513), China (n = 1565), and South Korea (n = 1514) were randomly exposed to various sets of potentially controversial information. Results indicated that the public's acceptance of this technology was comparable to solar power in Japan and South Korea and surpassing other energy sources in China at a general knowledge level. The findings reveal that acceptance was higher at a general knowledge level as opposed to when participants were more informed, though well-informed participants did not necessarily reject the emerging controversial technology. Raising public awareness about palm oil generally reduced acceptance of the utilization of recycled oil palm waste. Public support increased with multiple pieces of information rather than single pieces of information. Unexpectedly, the information provisions increased public support of other non-fossil fuel sources such as nuclear and solar power. These results suggest that the nature and volume of information significantly impact public support, and that the public engages in careful deliberation before making decisions.

O-200 Women’s understanding of their personal chance of success with IVF

Abstract Study question How well informed are Australian women who undergo In Vitro Fertilisation (IVF) about their treatment and their chances of having a baby? Summary answer Only one in four women accurately estimated their individual chance of success with IVF and most women overestimated their chance. What is known already IVF is the cornerstone of infertility treatment, and high quality, transparent and reliable treatment information is essential for patient-centred care. A recent review into IVF practice in Victoria, Australia has highlighted deficiencies in information-provision. Similar findings have also been reported internationally. An assessment of women’s understanding of various aspects of the treatment is needed to identify information gaps that should be addressed by clinicians. While limited knowledge about infertility and infertility treatment in the general population is well-documented, little is known about the level of knowledge about infertility treatment among women undergoing IVF treatment. Study design, size, duration We conducted an anonymous online survey of women who had started IVF since 2018 in Australia. The survey aimed to assess how well-informed women feel about their treatment, and was advertised on social media, enabling women from across Australia to participate. Responses were collected from 3 to 21 June 2021. Participants/materials, setting, methods The survey included questions on demographic characteristics and IVF history. It also asked how well-informed participants felt about their treatment, what they thought their chance of having a baby from one IVF treatment cycle was, how they rated their knowledge about chance of success, and about their experience of receiving IVF-related information. Participants’ beliefs about chance of success were compared with their chance as calculated by the Society for Assisted Reproductive Technology’s (SART) online calculator. Main results and the role of chance The survey was completed by 225 women. Only about a quarter (25.8%) of participants accurately estimated their chance of success within 20% relative to their SART calculated chance, and more than half (52.4%) overestimated their chance. Among women who rated their understanding of their chance of success as ‘high’ (7-10/10), less than one third (31.6%) accurately estimated their chance of success. Older age and having undergone several cycles were associated with women being more likely to overestimate their chance of success (odds ratios of 3.2 and 2.5, respectively). Ninety percent of women indicated that their preferred source of treatment information was a consultation with their doctor, despite many women reporting that doctors only explained the probability of having a baby with IVF moderately well (mean 5.9/10). Women also reported that they wished they had been given more realistic information about IVF and their chance of success. It is difficult to determine to what extent women’s lack of understanding of what is possible with IVF is due to poor information-provision by clinicians and the clinic, and how much can be explained by optimism bias. Limitations, reasons for caution The dissemination method precludes calculation of response rate, and it is not possible to know if participants are representative of all women undergoing IVF. There is inherent imprecision in the way understanding of chance of success was estimated. The potential impact of recall bias could neither be quantified nor excluded. Wider implications of the findings The poor understanding of personal chance of success amongst women undergoing IVF in Australia, highlights the need for systematic and evidence-based improvement in the way clinics inform patients about the probability of having a baby with IVF. Further research into how information-provision in IVF can be improved is needed. Trial registration number Not applicable

Responsible gambling strategy information available on public-facing state lottery websites in the U.S

ABSTRACT The lottery is the most widely available form of legal gambling in the US. However, there is relatively little work in promoting responsible gambling strategies by lottery providers. The current study applies five evidence-based responsible gambling strategies, to the responsible gambling information made available on 46 state lottery websites. The study employed a content analysis of the public-facing websites. The study found that a minority of the state lottery sites provided readily available information to the public for each of five strategies. Responsible gambling information was limited in most cases with several notable and informative exceptions. Findings are discussed in the context of public health education and harm reduction approaches in the provision of gambling products. The responsible gambling framework is premised on the notion of well-informed participants. Poor integration of responsible gambling strategies for the most widely available form of gambling points to the shortcomings of this framework in practice. Lottery operators should strive to increase their adoption of a greater range of responsible gambling approaches and increase the visibility of relevant information for potential participants.

End‐users’ requirements underpinned by IoT layered architecture to the development of smart sustainable cities

It has been claimed that the adoption of a smart and sustainable city concept is one of the most effective ways to eliminate the risk of unsustainable living. Since the sixties, the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia was transformed from a country of traditional settlements to a modern urban setting. However, this development has been based on conventional methods of city construction and building practices. Therefore, the main aim of this primary research is to establish the fundamental aspects of developing a sustainable and smart city framework that can be applied to most Saudi Arabian cities and societies. A qualitative research methodology is adopted to determine end-user requirements, with more than 500 well-informed participants from 17 different cities. Subsequently, the main contributions here can be summaries as follows: (a) evaluating public willingness regarding smart sustainable city movements, (b) establishing requirements for a sustainable and smart city framework based on end-user perspectives, (c) providing a decision makers with a robust generic framework of sustainable development across Saudi Arabian cites, and (d) an Internet of Thing (IoT) architecture for SSC Adoption and implementation along with an integrated socio-organizational, financial, and technical generic framework for smart sustainable city adoption in the Saudi Arabian context.

Participation and Development Buzzwords

The concept of sustainable development cannot be imagined without ownership, innovation, empowerment, and sustainability itself. In the same manner, it is not possible to achieve objectives of catchphrases like ownership, innovation, empowerment, and sustainability without ensuring genuine participation in the development projects. Genuine participation refers to a participatory process that takes place based on well-informed participants. A well-being outcome of participation relies on participants with sufficient knowledge of the issue and development process (Hussain, Khuhro, 2019). It is different from mobilisation campaign that emphasis on particular project objectives. In order to achieve goals of sustainable development, well-being participation is an essential step to take. This paper argues that a lack of real participation potentially restricts a sustainable development project to achieve objectives of ownership, innovation, empowerment, and sustainability, respectively.

Unravelling the encumbrances in the low-cost housing computerised open registration system in Malaysia's major cities

PurposeMalaysia's open registration system (ORS) scheme, which began in 1997, was established as part of prevention mechanism by the Ministry of Housing and Local Government to plug the leakage in the low-cost housing (LCH) allocation process. After two decades, ineligible persons still secure LCH to the detriment of the Malaysian low-income earners (LIEs) house-buyers/rentals. This paper explored the LCH computerised ORS for LIEs and proffered policy solutions to improve the scheme.Design/methodology/approachThe data were collected via unexplored exploratory sequential mixed methods approach that engaged 25 well-informed participants and the ‘quantilised findings’, validated by the Malaysian LCH policymakers.FindingsThis paper found that there is weak compliance to computerised ORS, which is pronounced in states with relaxed eligibility clearance. Also, it was found that under-declaration of income evident in states where there is relaxed verification and lack of data sharing between states and with federal governments, among others, are the root cause of weak compliance to computerised ORS.Research limitations/implicationsThis paper is limited to unravelling the encumbrances in the low-cost housing computerised open registration system in Malaysia's major cities. Future research is needed to use relevant information to access the level of enforcement of the computerised open registration system across the states of Malaysia.Practical implicationsThis paper recommended that LCH computerised ORS should be devoid of party favouritism, state government should establish functional LCH computerised ORS, and the state and federal governments, should embrace cooperative federalism. Also, applicants should be subjected to the Central Credit Reference Information System check, and culprits should be referred to the Malaysian Anti-Corruption Commission. This paper provides salutary lessons on how to improve the scheme with a view to achieving the Sustainable Development Goals regarding housing in 2030.Originality/valueThis paper demonstrates that the low-cost housing computerised open registration system in Malaysia is yet to be implemented across the states.

Living with Paradox in International Development: An Extended Case Study of an International NGO

International non-governmental organisations (NGOs) combine practical and advocacy efforts to address global challenges like poverty and climate change. However, NGOs are embedded within the same global system they seek to challenge. This article explore the tensions this raises from the vantage point of one particular organisation (Concern Universal). Drawing on a paradox perspective, we find that despite the structural constraints, NGO actors and the poor people they work alongside are active and well-informed participants in the development process. However, a focus on the communicative labour of NGOs uncovers the power relations at play in that work. Nonetheless, our paper challenges ideas about development as ‘us versus them’. Rather, by focusing our analysis on the relationships between NGO actors and multiple others, we show how the organisation is effectively constituted by these and other relationships.

EXPLORING 35-44 YEAR OLD MEN’S HEALTH BEHAVIOUR: A QUALITATIVE PERSPECTIVE

Upon reaching 35-44 year of age, men experience their first health problems, often because of an unhealthy way of life e.g., smoking, physical inactivity, unhealthy nutrition habits, etc. In comparison with other age groups, these men rarely look for medical help, thus, opening themselves up to a number of potentially negative consequences e.g. health risks in future. This study explores the health behaviour of 35-44 year old men by conducting semi-structured in-depth interviews with 48 participants. The data are further analysed using inductive thematic analysis. Results indicate the presence of three main types of men’s behaviour: 1) participants with positive attitude towards one’s health and practice of health behaviour, 2) well-informed participants with intentions to perform health behaviour as well as excuses not to follow these intentions, 3) men with negative attitude towards one’s health and lack of practice of health behaviour.

Why don’t UK citizens protest against privacy-invading dragnet surveillance?

PurposeThe purpose of this study was to identify to identify reasons for the lack of protest against dragnet surveillance in the UK. As part of this investigation, a study was carried out to gauge the understanding of “privacy” and “confidentiality” by the well-informed.Design/methodology/approachTo perform a best-case study, the authors identified a group of well-informed participants in terms of security. To gain insights into their privacy-related mental models, they were asked first to define the three core terms and then to identify the scenarios. Then, the participants were provided with privacy-related scenarios and were asked to demonstrate their understanding by classifying the scenarios and identifying violations.FindingsAlthough the participants were mostly able to identify privacy and confidentiality scenarios, they experienced difficulties in articulating the actual meaning of the terms privacy, confidentiality and security.Research limitations/implicationsThere were a limited number of participants, yet the findings are interesting and justify further investigation. The implications, even of this initial study, are significant in that if citizens’ privacy rights are being violated and they did not seem to know how to protest this and if indeed they had the desire to do so.Practical implicationsHad the citizens understood the meaning of privacy, and their ancient right thereto, which is enshrined in law, their response to the Snowden revelations about ongoing wide-scale surveillance might well have been more strident and insistent.Originality/valuePeople in the UK, where this study was carried out, do not seem to protest the privacy invasion effected by dragnet surveillance with any verve. The authors identify a number of possible reasons for this from the literature. One possible explanation is that people do not understand privacy. Thus, this study posits that privacy is unusual in that understanding does not seem to align with the ability to articulate the rights to privacy and their disapproval of such widespread surveillance. This seems to make protests unlikely.

Participant views on participating in a pragmatic randomised controlled trial: the Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Women´s Fitness Program

IntroductionThe inequity of randomising participants to control groups in randomised controlled trials (RCTs) is often considered inappropriate, especially for research trials that include vulnerable populations such as Indigenous peoples. The Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Women’s Fitness Program conducted a trial that randomly assigned participants to ‘active’ and ‘waitlisted’ groups. This paper reports on participant views of the randomisation protocol.MethodsA pragmatic RCT was conducted in an urban setting to assess the effectiveness of the 12-week Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Women’s Fitness Program on metabolic health outcomes and waist circumference. Qualitative interviews were conducted at follow-up, one of the objectives was to explore participant perspectives on the research protocol, including participant randomisation to ‘Active’ and ‘Waitlisted’ groups.ResultsA total of 49 interviews were conducted (26 Active and 23 Waitlisted participants). Two key factors influenced participant views on the protocol: 1) group assignment; and 2) how well they understood the research design, including the justification for randomisation. ‘Active’ participants were concerned about the inequity of the randomisation process but overall supported the study protocol. Although most Waitlisted participants were disappointed about having to wait 12-months for the program, some participants derived motivation from being waitlisted, whilst others lost motivation. Well-informed participants were more likely to express both support for the randomisation process and an understanding of the research benefits than participants not attending an information session prior to registration.ConclusionsParticipants were more accepting of the research protocol if it was clearly explained to them, if they understood the randomisation process and felt the randomisation was justified in terms of the potential for the results to benefit other Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander women. Our study suggests that the time and resources required to adequately explain the research protocol in research trials should not be undervalued.Trial registrationAustralian New Zealand Clinical Trials Registry (ACTRN12610000224022).

熟議デモクラシー，国境横断的なその制度化の課題と可能性

This article aims to explore the possibility of institutionalizing transnational deliberative democracy in the age of globalization, examining the social experiment of European Union, Europolis. The construction of this article is as follows. First, we take a critical look at James Bohman's ‘mini-demoi’ as a conception of institutionalizing transnational deliberation. Then, I argue that his conception of institutional pluralism is incoherent with his ideal of democracy as ‘self-rule’. Second, to illustrate my argument, I analyze the results and organization of Europolis. From this analysis, I make the following points. (1) Mini-publics that do not aim at achieving agreement are capable of institutionalizing deliberative space in a transnational context, therefore generating multi-perspectives among well-informed participants in mini-publics despite their language or culture. And also, (2) mini-publics are expected to be representative of ideal publics, a microcosm. However, it is uncertain whether they actually can foster deliberation and considered judgment within mass society, if we take account of the characteristics of mass media. In conclusion, I argue, if we hope to realize deliberative institutions congruous with the ideal of democracy as ‘self-rule’, we should explore further the relationship between representation and democracy. We should do so especially in contemporary circumstances, when it is urgent to envisage how we incorporate transnational and diverse opinion-formation processes into globalized political will-formation.

Auditing Nicaragua’s anti-corruption struggle, 1998 to 2009

BackgroundFour social audits in 1998, 2003, 2006 and 2009 identified actions that Nicaragua could take to reduce corruption and public perception in primary health care and other key services.MethodsIn a 71-cluster sample, weighted according to the 1995 census and stratified by geographic region and settlement type, we audited the same five public services: health centres and health posts, public primary schools, municipal government, transit police and the courts. Some 6,000 households answered questions about perception and personal experience of unofficial and involuntary payments, payments without obtaining receipts or to the wrong person, and payments "to facilitate" services in municipal offices or courts. Additional questions covered complaints about corruption and confidence in the country's anti-corruption struggle. Logistic regression analyses helped clarify local variations and explanatory variables. Feedback to participants and the services at both national and local levels followed each social audit.ResultsUsers' experience of corruption in health services, education and municipal government decreased. The wider population's perception of corruption in these sectors decreased also, but not as quickly. Progress among traffic police faltered between 2006 and 2009 and public perception of police corruption ticked upwards in parallel with drivers' experience. Users' experience of corruption in the courts worsened over the study period -- with the possible exception of Managua between 2006 and 2009 -- but public perception of judicial corruption, after peaking in 2003, declined from then on. Confidence in the anti-corruption struggle grew from 50% to 60% between 2003 and 2009. Never more than 8% of respondents registered complaints about corruption.Factors associated with public perception of corruption were: personal experience of corruption, quality of the service itself, and the perception that municipal government takes community opinion into account and keeps people informed about how it uses public funds.ConclusionsLowering citizens' perception of corruption in public services depends on reducing their experience of it, on improving service quality and access and -- perhaps most importantly -- on making citizens feel they are well-informed participants in the work of government.

It's not just what you say, it's also how you say it: Opening the ‘black box’ of informed consent appointments in randomised controlled trials

Randomised controlled trials (RCTs) represent the gold standard methodology for determining effectiveness of healthcare interventions. Poor recruitment to RCTs can threaten external validity and waste resources. An inherent tension exists between safeguarding informed decision-making by participants and maximising numbers enrolled. This study investigated what occurs during informed consent appointments in an ongoing multi-centre RCT in the UK. Objectives were to investigate: 1] how study staff presented study information to participants; 2] what evidence emerged as to how well-informed participants were when proceeding to randomisation or treatment selection; and 3] what aspects of the communication process may facilitate improvements in providing evidence of informed consent. Qualitative analysis of a purposive sample of 23 recruitment appointments from three study centres and involving several recruitment staff applied techniques of thematic, content and conversation analysis (CA). Thematic analysis and CA revealed variation in appointment content and structure. Appointments were mostly recruiter-led or participant-led, and this structure was associated with what evidence emerged as to how participants understood information provided and whether they were in equipoise. Participant-led appointments provided this evidence more consistently. Detailed CA identified communication techniques which, when employed by recruiters, provided evidence as to how participants understood the choices before them. Strategic use of open questions, pauses and ceding the floor in the interaction facilitated detailed and systematic exploration of each participant's concerns and position regarding equipoise. We conclude that the current focus on content to be provided to achieve informed consent should be broadened to encompass consideration of how information is best conveyed to potential participants. A model of tailored information provision using the communication techniques identified and centred on eliciting and addressing participants' concerns is proposed. Use of these techniques is necessary to make potential participants' understanding of key issues and their position regarding equipoise explicit in order to facilitate truly informed consent.

Presenting risk information to people with diabetes: Evaluating effects and preferences for different formats by a web-based randomised controlled trial

Objective Web-based patient information is widespread and information on the benefits and risks of treatments is often difficult to understand. We therefore evaluated different risk presentation formats – numerical, graphical and others – addressing the pros and cons of tight control versus usual treatment approaches for diabetes. Method Design: Randomised controlled trial. Setting: Online. Publicity disseminated via Diabetes UK. Participants: People with diabetes or their carers. Interventions: Control group information based on British Medical Journal ‘Best Treatments’. Four intervention groups received enhanced information resources: (1) detailed numerical information (absolute/relative risk, numbers-needed-to-treat); (2) ‘anchoring’ to familiar risks or descriptions; (3) graphical (bar charts, thermometer scales, crowd figure formats); (4) combination of 1–3. Outcomes: Decision conflict scale (DCS, a measure of uncertainty); satisfaction with information; further free text responses for qualitative content analysis. Results Seven hundred and ten people visited the website and were randomised. Five hundred and eight completed the questionnaire for quantitative data. Mean DCS scores ranged from 2.12 to 2.24 for the five randomisation groups, indicating neither clear delay or vacillation about decisions (usually DCS > 2.5) nor tending to make decisions (usually DCS < 2.0). There were no statistically significant effects of the interventions on DCS, or satisfaction with information. Two hundred and fifty-six participants provided responses for qualitative analysis: most found graphical representations helpful, specifically bar chart formats; many found other graphic formats (thermometer style, crowd figures/smiley faces) and ‘anchoring’ information unhelpful, and indicated information overload. Many negative experiences with healthcare indicate a challenging context for effective information provision and decision support. Conclusion Online evaluation of different risk representation formats was feasible. There was a lack of intervention effects on quantitative outcomes, perhaps reflecting already well-informed participants from the Diabetes UK patient organisation. The large qualitative dataset included many comments about what participants found helpful as formats for communicating risk information. Practice implications These findings assist the design of online decision aids and the representation of risk information. The challenge is to provide more information, in appropriate and clear formats, but without risking information overload. Interactive web designs hold much promise to achieve this.

An integrated approach to consumer representation and involvement in a multicentre randomized controlled trial

Although, consumer involvement in individual studies is often limited, their involvement in guiding health research is generally considered to be beneficial. This paper outlines our experiences of an integrated relationship between the organisers of a clinical trial and a consumer organisation. The PRISM trial is a UK multicentre, randomized controlled trial comparing treatment strategies for Paget's disease of the bone. The National Association for the Relief of Paget's Disease (NARPD) is the only UK support group for sufferers of Paget's disease and has worked closely with the PRISM team from the outset. NARPD involvement is integral to the conduct of the trial and specific roles have included: peer-review; trial steering committee membership; provision of advice to participants, and promotion of the trial amongst Paget's disease patients. The integrated relationship has yielded benefits to both the trial and the consumer organisation. The benefits for the trial have included: recruitment of participants via NARPD contacts; well-informed participants; unsolicited patient advocacy of the trial; and interested and pro-active collaborators. For the NARPD and Paget's disease sufferers, benefits have included: increased awareness of Paget's disease; increased access to relevant health research; increased awareness of the NARPD services; and wider transfer of diagnosis and management knowledge to/from health care professionals. Our experience has shown that an integrated approach between a trial team and a consumer organisation is worthwhile. Adoption of such an approach in other trials may yield significant improvements in recruitment and quality of participant information flow. There are, however, resource implications for both parties.

Medicine on the line? Computer‐mediated social support and advice for people with diabetes

The advent of thousands of Usenet groups on the Internet, covering a vast range of medical and welfare issues and ostensibly devoted to the mutual social support of participating members, has raised the potential for the development of new forms of ‘virtual’ health care. This article critically analyses the use by people with diabetes of one such Usenet group. It seeks to establish, first, the extent to which such a site provides some demonstrable measure of social support to its participants. This is approached by undertaking a structural analysis of the site to identify the extent of usage, and the nature of supporting interventions using a fivefold classification (instrumental, informational, esteem and social companionship and other). Second, the article attempts to identify any disparity between the lay health‐knowledge in evidence and biomedical opinions proffered by the use of a panel of consultant diabetiologists. The results of the analysis suggest that the diabetes newsgroup provides an example of an active forum for largely well‐informed participants who routinely use the media as an aid to the reflexive management of their medical condition. It also raises the prospect of a renegotiated relationship between medical knowledge and lay experience based upon shared learning

Comment les usagers accèdent à l'information médicale aux états-unis: l'exemple de medline plus

Consumer health information (CHI) systems are becoming a very important tool for health consumers. They “empower consumers to become active, well-informed participants to better manage their health” (Dr. Koop). This paper first analyses the need for such information, explaining the fragile balance between physicians, health insurance companies and patients. The example of Medline plus, the site developed by the National Library of Medecine, is used to present the content of major CHI systems and characterize their audience. Differences between information servers for health professionals and consumers are discussed.

A Test of the Structure of PAC Contracts: An Analysis of House Gun Control Votes in the 1980s

Enactment of the bill was a major victory for the National Rifle Association, which had worked for years to win relaxation of the landmark Gun Control Act of 1968. Congressional Quarterly Almanac (1986, p. 82) I. Introduction Every election the same political action committees (PACs) contribute millions of dollars to candidates for office. Well-informed participants in the political process surely must get value for their money. Yet empirical research fails to provide systematic evidence that campaign contributions influence congressional roll call votes.1 A mischaracterization of the exchange between PACs and politicians may produce these contradictory results. Empirical studies of roll call voting typically use PAC contributions from only one election cycle. Earlier studies generally assume prepayment in the prior Congress, while more contemporary studies assume a spot exchange. Recent empirical work, however, suggests another possibility: Interest groups may buy current influence with money spent over multiple election cycles. Stratmann (1995) shows that contributions from both the current and the previous election cycles influence floor votes on agricultural price supports. Snyder (1990, 1992) presents evidence that interest groups make long-term investments in politicians. Previous studies, by arbitrarily imposing a payment structure, may have produced erroneous estimates of the influence of PAC money on legislative votes. We examine roll call votes on gun control in the U.S. House of Representatives during the 1980s to determine whether PACs make spot market purchases, prepay for votes in the prior election cycle, or make long-term investments. We investigate whether PAC contributions have a durable, long-term investment effect, as Snyder (1992) suggests. We consider two types of evidence concerning the campaign contribution contract. First, we examine the pattern of expenditures by the two dominant interest groups concerned with gun control: the National Rifle Association (NRA) and Hand Gun Control (HGC). Their expenditures provide strong evidence against the spot market exchange hypothesis: Both groups made significant expenditures in sessions of Congress in which no floor vote occurred. Nor were these expenditures purchasing services such as committee work in a spot market exchange. Further, 1986 NRA expenditures are significantly higher for first-term representatives, which is consistent with long-term investments but contradicts a spot exchange (since freshmen have the least influence to sell). Second, we include expenditures from both the current and the five previous election cycles as separate independent variables in a model of roll call voting. To date, no empirical paper tests whether PAC money from more than two cycles influences roll call voting, and only Stratmann (1995) and Grenzke (1989) use a model that specifies money from more than one cycle in an equation explaining roll call votes. Our probit estimates indicate that NRA expenditures in the three most recent election cycles and HGC expenditures in the two most recent cycles buy votes. The independent effect of expenditures from different cycles suggests that contributions are neither an unqualified one-session prepayment nor a spot exchange. The influence of NRA expenditures two sessions prior to the roll call votes is evidence of a long-term investment. The literature on the determinants of roll call voting assumes that PAC contributions alter representatives' votes. Interest groups might instead simply provide campaign assistance to their supporters to affect the composition of Congress (Stratmann 1991; Bronars and Lott 1997). If a difficult to quantify variable (and thus omitted from regressions) signals a representative's true position and interest groups make campaign contributions on the basis of this variable, PAC contributions might appear to influence votes. The pattern of contributions and votes on gun control, however, indicates attempts by the NRA and HGC to influence votes, not merely the composition of Congress. …

Are Judges Beyond Criticism Under Article 10 of the European Convention on Human Rights?

On the premise that democratic government is founded,inter alia, on the accountability of public bodies and their officials, as well as on the popular participation in collective decision-making by the governed at all levels of government, there is merit in the proposition that it is improper to curb open debate, especially in matters which are of public interest. In so far as the work of the judiciary in general, and of judges in particular, is in the public domain and thus of public interest, the value of the freedom of expression applies, in principle, with equal force. Freedom of expression in the legal domain and in relation to the work of judges serves a variety of useful purposes in democratic society. Freedom of expression serves to uphold the integrity of the principles of democracy which require that governmental institutions should be transparent and accountable, and in that sense the judicial domain, very much like other branches of government, benefits from a healthy exchange and interaction of opinions. The administration of justice is better served by well-informed participants than by ignorance, and freedom of expression can contribute to a full and rigorous assessment of information in the judicial context Similarly, in modern democratic society, all individuals, but especially legal journalists, lawyers and other officials of the legal establishment, contribute to the architecture of judicial policy through the expression of their opinions. Freedom of expression in this context can also prove to be an instrument of individual and professional self-fulfilment. This is considered crucial in any society which is dependent upon the participation of the people.

The Second International Science Study

Science is included in the school curriculum for two reasons. First, it has a role in helping students to understand their environment and to develop skills in the application of scientific methods to the solution of problems. Second, it provides basic training for those students who will subsequently follow careers in science and technology. These aspects of the school science curriculum reflect common national development strategies that in turn have two strands. One strand requires the population as a whole to have a good understanding of the purposes and scope of science and technology so that the citizens may share as well-informed participants in the process of national development. A second strand is the need for the country to have a sufficiently large group of persons trained in science and technology to help the country in those aspects of its national development that depend on technical competence. The Second International Science Study (SISS) is being undertaken to provide an overview of science education across the world. It will provide data and results to inform debate about the nature and content of school science education that will best suit the needs of the students and the societies to which they belong. The SISS, which started in 1981, is building on earlier IEA work in this area carried out as part of the IEA's Six-Subject Survey in 1970.' The earlier study is now referred to as the First International Science Study (FISS). The SISS is taking place in 26 educational systems that encompass a range of levels of national development: Australia, Canada (Englishspeaking), Canada (French-speaking), China, England, Finland, Ghana, Hong Kong, Hungary, Israel, Italy, Japan, Korea, Mexico, the Netherlands, Nigeria, Norway, Papua New Guinea, the Philippines, Poland, Singapore, Sweden, Tanzania, Thailand, the United States, and Zimbabwe. Three target populations have been defined for the study. Population 1 basically involves students at the 10-year-old (year 5) level. Population 2 involves students at the 14-year-old (year 9) level. Population 3 involves science students at the final-year secondary level, usually year 12. Further information about these populations is given below.