Ruminant Welfare Research Articles

Clinicopathological Evaluation of Naturally Occurring Septic Arthritis in the Bovine Calves

Background: Septic arthritis affects ruminant welfare because, if left untreated, it can cause chronic pain and limit the mobility of affected joints. Objectives: This study aimed to investigate the clinical and pathological changes in arthritic bovine calves. Methods: The study was conducted on 12 calves with swollen knees or carpal joints. All calves were evaluated through clinical, radiographic, and ultrasonographic examination. Peripheral blood was aspirated from each to assess hematobiochemical changes. Synovial fluid and infected swab samples were subjected to bacteriological analysis, and a synovial biopsy was taken for histological examination. Results: Ultrasound revealed inflammatory effusions with various echogenicity in the afflicted joint capsule, while radiography showed remarkable swelling of joints and surrounding structures and the development of new bone. Regarding hematological variables, the value of total erythrocyte count, total leukocyte count, and erythrocyte sedimentation rate significantly (P<0.05) increased in septic arthritic calves compared to healthy calves. In the arthritis group, the serum concentration of alanine transaminase, alkaline phosphatase, and aspartate aminotransferase was considerably (P<0.05) higher than in healthy calves. The total protein and urea values were significantly (P<0.05) decreased in calves with infected arthritis. From the synovial fluid and purulent discharge of the joints, Staphylococcus aureus and Escherichia coli were isolated. Histopathology of synovial tissue revealed chronic suppurative inflammation with intense hyperplasia of joint synovium. Conclusion: The results of this study may aid veterinarians in effectively diagnosing and treating septic arthritis in calves.

O54 (not presented) Feeding the individual, not the group: utilizing behavioral and nutritional data to improve the welfare of ruminants

O54 (not presented) Feeding the individual, not the group: utilizing behavioral and nutritional data to improve the welfare of ruminants

EFFECTS OF A SINGLE ORAL DOSE OF TRAZODONE ON BEHAVIOR AND SERUM CORTISOL LEVELS IN BLUE WILDEBEEST (CONNOCHAETES TAURINUS).

Trazodone is a dose-dependent serotonin antagonist and agonist used to treat anxiety-related conditions. Trauma has been identified as the leading cause of morbidity and mortality in several nondomestic ruminant species and can be exacerbated by stress. In a recent study in domestic goats (Capra aegagrus hircus), trazodone reduced activity levels without adverse effects. Trazodone could allow for safer capture and handling in nondomestic ruminant species. The objectives of this study were to identify a dose of trazodone that decreases activity levels in captive blue wildebeest (Connochaetes taurinus) and to evaluate its safety and its effects on serum cortisol levels following a routine veterinary procedure. A pilot study using ethograms identified a group fed 15 mg/kg oral dose of trazodone as effective to reduce activity levels. Over 6 h, this dose resulted in a 111% increase in time spent sleeping or resting (P = 0.0003), a 41% increase in time spent lying down (P = 0.0016), a 64% reduction in time spent moving (P= 0.005), and a 65% reduction in time spent being vigilant (P= 0.026). Systemic absorption of trazodone was identified when plasma concentrations were measured after 2 h (95 ± 48 µg/L). Serum cortisol levels during a routine venipuncture event were not significantly different following trazodone administration (P > 0.05). Mild hyporexia was the only adverse effect noted at 15 mg/kg and was absent at a 12 mg/kg dose. Trazodone appears safe and promising to decrease activity in blue wildebeest and might thus have a positive effect on nondomestic ruminant welfare and the safety of veterinary procedures.

Rumenotomy-induced Stress of Standing and Lateral Recumbency Restraints based on Physiologic Parameters and Interleukin-6 Expressions in Kano-Brown Goats

Ruminant welfare post-surgery could be improved by employing a procedural technique that causes minimal surgical stress. A total of twenty-four (n = 24) Kano Brown goats (KBGs) aged 1–2 years, weighing an average of 15.52 kg, were recruited for the study. Rumen skin clamp fixation (RSCF) and a stay suture rumenotomy (SSR) in lateral recumbency while standing restraint rumenotomy was aided by a locally fabricated mobile small ruminant surgical chute (MSRSC) were performed in groups A, B, and D, respectively, as control group C had no surgery. Six goats were allocated to each group such that each group had 3 males and females that were positive for rumen foreign body impaction (RFBI), except goats in group C that were free of RFBI. Pre- and post-rumenotomy values of vital parameters did not differ significantly (P > 0.05). The group A serum IL-6 concentrations at 72 hours post-rumenotomy (61.21 ± 44.52 ng/L) were significantly higher (P < 0.05) than those in group D (15.24 ± 3.09 ng/L) among the female KBGs. The concentrations of IL-6 at week 1 post-rumenotomy in group A were significantly higher (65.05 ± 31.11 ng/L) than in groups B (15.86 ± 0.29), D (18.75 ± 5.81) and C (14.86 ± 0.79 ng/L). The lack of significant changes in the mean values of rectal temperature, respiratory rate, and heart rate implies that the standing rumenotomy utilizing the MSRSC did not vary in surgical stress severity from the conventional approaches; RSCF and SSR, done in lateral recumbency. The IL-6 in group D was lower when compared to the values in group A females at 72 hours and at week 1 for the male KBGs, suggesting profound surgical stress among females and males in groups A and B over group D. Standing restraints cause less surgical stress than lateral recumbency restraints, making it a better procedural approach for rumenotomy in goats.

Mapping the Spatial Distribution of the Rumen Fluke Calicophoron daubneyi in a Mediterranean Area.

Rumen flukes (Calicophoron daubneyi) represent a growing threat to the animal health, productivity and welfare of ruminants. The present study aimed to assess the spatial distribution of C. daubneyi infections in ruminants and to develop a predictive model of the environmental suitability for rumen flukes in a Mediterranean area. A cross-sectional coprological survey was conducted in 682 sheep, 73 goat and 307 cattle farms located in the Basilicata region (southern Italy). Faecal samples collected were analysed using the FLOTAC technique. Geographical Information Systems (GIS) and statistical models were developed to determine environmental risk factors and to delimitate the areas at highest risk of infections in small ruminants. The results showed 7.9% (95% CI 6.05–10.27) of sheep farms, 2.7% (95% CI 0.48–10.44) of goat farms and 55.0% (95% CI 49.62–60.99) of cattle farms were infected by C. daubneyi. The areas with high predicted risk were situated in the western part of the region. The soil texture, land use and the presence of streams and brooks were the variables statistically significant (p < 0.05) in explaining the C. daubneyi distribution in the study area. The study confirms the importance of geospatial technology in supporting parasite control strategies in livestock and demonstrates that a combined use of different geostatistical techniques can improve the prediction of the C. daubneyi infection risk in ruminants.

Lying Behaviour in Dairy Goats: Effects of a New Automated Feeding System Assessed by Accelerometer Technology.

Simple SummaryGoat farming is becoming more important in Germany and as dehorning is forbidden, it is necessary to facilitate animal welfare among horned and mixed-horned herds. In this study an optimized automatic concentrated feeding system was installed in a mixed-horned herd and lying behaviour was detected by accelerometer technology. Results show a seasonal progression of lying behaviour in dairy goats and an adjustment of behavioural differences between horned and hornless goats with the new feeding system.The aim of this study was to evaluate lying behaviour in dairy goats before and after installation of an optimized automatic concentrated feeding system (AFS). A mixed-horned herd of Bunte Deutsche Edelziege was used. As many agonistic interactions between goats happen at the feeding place, a new automated feeding system was installed to better fulfil the needs of horned goats. Lying behaviour is an indicator to ascertain animal welfare of ruminants. In order to measure lying behaviour accelerometer technology was used and verified by video analyses. The results show an agreement of 99.62–99.93% per lying time by comparing accelerometers to video data. Over all goats, a mean ± SD lying time (LT) of 11.78 ± 1.47 h/d, a mean ± SD lying bout duration (LBD) of 0.51 ± 0.10 h/bout and a mean ± SD frequency of lying bouts (FLB) of 24.35 ± 5.57 were found. Lying behaviour follows a seasonal progression with significant lowest LBD and highest FLB in summer. With the old AFS significant differences in LBD and FLB were detected between horned and hornless goats, but with the new AFS results were adjusted. Findings suggest that changes in feeding management do not affect the general seasonal progression of lying behaviour but can affect the behavioural differences between horned and hornless dairy goats.

Financial Impacts of Liver Fluke on Livestock Farms Under Climate Change-A Farm Level Assessment.

Liver fluke infection (fascioliasis) is a parasitic disease which affects the health and welfare of ruminants. It is a concern for the livestock industry and is considered as a growing threat to the industry because changing climatic conditions are projected to be more favorable to increased frequency and intensity of liver fluke outbreaks. Recent reports highlighted that the incidence and geographic range of liver fluke has increased in the UK over the last decade and estimated to increase the average risk of liver fluke in the UK due to increasing temperature and rainfall. This paper explores financial impacts of the disease with and without climate change effects on Scottish livestock farms using a farm-level economic model. The model is based on farming system analysis and uses linear programming technique to maximize farm net profit within farm resources. Farm level data from a sample of 160 Scottish livestock farms is used under a no disease baseline scenario and two disease scenarios (with and without climate change). These two disease scenarios are compared with the baseline scenario to estimate the financial impact of the disease at farm levels. The results suggest a 12% reduction in net profit on an average dairy farm compared to 6% reduction on an average beef farm under standard disease conditions. The losses increase by 2-fold on a dairy farm and 6-fold on a beef farm when climate change effects are included with disease conditions on farms. There is a large variability within farm groups with profitable farms incurring relatively lesser economic losses than non-profitable farms. There is a substantial increase in number of vulnerable farms both in dairy (+20%) and beef farms (+27%) under the disease alongside climate change conditions.

381 Smart Farming for Extensive Grazing Ruminant Production Systems

Abstract Smart farming for extensive grazing systems includes applications linking environment and supply-chain, including metrics for climate, soils, pastures, animals and animal products to enhance management, optimization and predictions. Technological developments for remote monitoring in extensive systems have varied in their success and remain limited in uptake, and include: In-field, fixed-device monitoring of livestock numbers, water, photosynthesis and greenhouse gas emissions; body composition and physiology assessments using devices fixed to handling facilities; ground- or aerial-based livestock, water, pasture, invasive weeds and/or soil monitoring using photogrammetry or technologies including LiDAR; multi-channel, satellite-based spectrometry coupled with weather and soil grids to model and predict pasture biomass components; automated in-field liveweight measurement and drafting; virtual fencing; on- and in-animal devices to monitor location, activity, behaviors and physiology; GPS to monitor asset and personnel location. These technologies target productivity, efficiency, health and welfare of ruminants, including genetic improvement, and more efficient, sustainable resource use, including soils, pastures and water, to improve individual ruminants and grazing systems. We have developed and validated technologies for remote, in-field determination of animal behaviors, pasture characteristics including availability and disappearance mapping for calibration and validation of satellite images, and pasture intake under varying grazing conditions. Examples of our R&amp;D include experimental on-animal sensor devices to classify and monitor behaviors in extensive systems, and development of a GrazingApp linking satellite imagery, weather and soil information to model and predict animal production. Development of these technologies has required analytical methods for big data, including machine learning and artificial intelligence. These and other applications that function in near to real-time are enhanced by management and aggregation of enormous amounts of data generated by sensors and other devices into useful metrics before transmission using wireless networks. These metrics are the basis for data-driven management decisions that reduce risk and enhance profit for grazing enterprises.

Mentha villosa Hubs., M. x piperita and their bioactives against gastrointestinal nematodes of ruminants and the potential as drug enhancers

Parasitic diseases caused by gastrointestinal nematodes (GIN) are responsible for a major impact on ruminant welfare. Although the available anthelmintics have a safe margin of toxicity to the animals, their indiscriminate use has increased the selection of resistant parasite populations. In this scenario, essential oils (EO) stand out as a promising ecofriendly therapeutic alternative against GIN. The objective of this work was to determine the effect of the EO of Mentha villosa Hubs (MVEO) collected in 2017 and 2018, M. x piperita (MPEO) and their main components, carvone and limonene, against the third stage larvae (L3) of Haemonchus spp. and Trichostrongylus spp. The solutions, including in nanoemulsion preparations, were tested in a range of concentrations using the larval migration inhibition test (LMIT). The EO and carvone were also tested in combination with nitroxynil (NTX) to determine their effect as drug enhancers (additive or synergy). MVEO/2017, MVEO/2018, MPEO and carvone showed 70.6 (73.4 mg/mL), 86.3 (74.9 mL/mL), 95.5 (143.6 mg/mL), and 88.2 % (38.3 mg/mL) efficacy against L3, respectively. Carvone alone had approximately a 3-fold higher efficacy when compared to its concentration in each EO: 68.8 % in MVEO/2017 and 83.9 % in MVEO/2018. Limonene did not show any significant effect on inhibiting L3 migration. The combination of MPEO and NTX, and carvone and NTX showed a statistically significantly (P < 0.05) synergic and additive effect, respectively, when compared to the isolated treatment. The nanoemulsion of MVEO/2017 at 0.367 mg/mL, inhibited L3 migration by 83.1 %, demonstrating to be highly effective (concentration ratio of 1:0.004), when compared to the MVEO/2017 (70.6 % at 73.4 mg/mL) extraction. The in vitro data from the combination of MPEO or carvone plus NTX suggest that these products can be considered for in vivo experiments against the most important GIN of ruminants as drug enhancers, possibly reducing the final concentration of NTX`. The efficacy of carvone was higher (EC50 = 1.96 mg/mL) than its expected efficacy, based on its concentrations on both EO. Therefore, this component does not need the entire EO composition to exert its L3 motility action. The remarkable efficacy demonstrated by the MVEO/2017/nanoemulsion (EC50 = 0.10 mg/mL), supports its potential to be a candidate to the next-generation therapy to alleviate clinical parasite infections and combat GIN resistant populations.

Lactoferrin quantification in cattle faeces by ELISA.

BackgroundPromoting and maintaining health is critical to ruminant welfare and productivity. Within human medicine, faecal lactoferrin is quantified for routine assessment of various gastrointestinal illnesses avoiding the need for blood sampling. This approach might also be adapted and applied for non-invasive health assessments in animals.MethodsIn this proof-of-concept study, a bovine lactoferrin enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays (ELISA), designed for serum and milk, was applied to a faecal supernatant to assess its potential for quantifying lactoferrin in the faeces of cattle. Faecal lactoferrin concentrations were compared to background levels to assess the viability of the technique. A comparison was then made against serum lactoferrin levels to determine if they were or were not reflective of one another.ResultsThe optical densities of faecal samples were significantly greater than background readings, supporting the hypothesis that the assay was effective in quantifying faecal lactoferrin (T13, 115 = 11.99, p < 0.0005). The mean faecal lactoferrin concentration was 0.269 µg mL−1 (S.E. 0.031) and the mean serum concentration 0.074 µg mL−1 (S.E. 0.005). Lactoferrin concentrations of faecal and serum samples, taken from the same animals on the same day, were significantly different (T21 = 2.20, p = 0.039) and did not correlate (r = 0.2699, p = 0.238).ConclusionResults support the hypothesis that lactoferrin can be quantified in cattle faeces by ELISA. Whilst further research is required to determine the physiological source of the lactoferrin, this highlights the potential of the method for non-invasive assessment of cattle immunology and pathology.

Contagious Agalactia In Sheep And Goats: Current Perspectives.

Contagious agalactia (CA) is a disease caused equally by four Mycoplasma species, in single or mixed infections. Clinical signs are multiple, including mastitis, arthritis, keratoconjunctivitis, pneumonia, and septicemia, non-specific, and expressed differently depending whether sheep or goats are affected, on causative mycoplasmas as well as type of husbandry. CA has been reported worldwide and its geographic distribution maps to that of small ruminant breeding areas. However, as current diagnostic tests are expensive and difficult to implement, it is certainly underdiagnosed and prevalence data are only available for a few countries. CA control relies on vaccines, chemotherapy and good herd management practices. It requires long-term commitment but is often unsuccessful, with frequent clinical relapses. The persistence of the etiological agents, despite their overall susceptibility to antimicrobials, comes from their genetic plasticity and capacity to escape the host immune response. The existence of asymptomatic carriers and the numerous sources of infections contribute to rapid spread of the disease and complicate the control and prevention efforts. Here we review all these aspects in order to highlight recent progress made and identify gaps in knowledge or tools needed for better disease management. Discussion also underlines the detrimental effect of contagious agalactia on small ruminant welfare.

Seroprevalence of Peste Des Petits Ruminants in Selected Districts of Siltie and Gurage Zones, South Region, Ethiopia

A cross-sectional study to investigate Peste des Petits Ruminants (PPR) seroprevalence was conducted between November 2014 and May 2015 in selected districts of Siltie and Gurage zones, south region, Ethiopia. A total of 390 serum samples were collected from sheep and goats. Competitive Enzyme Linked Immunosorbent Assay (c-ELISA) was used to detect the presence of antibodies in the sera of animals as indicator of exposure to the PPR virus. The total apparent prevalence was found to be 29.2% (114/390), indicating the spread of PPR virus throughout the study areas with silti and meskan districts experiencing the prevalence of 24.2% and 33%, respectively. Study animals were categorized into two age groups as young and adult, with prevalence of 25.9% and 31.8%, respectively. Out of total 390 samples, 240 serum samples were from male and 150 serum samples from female with prevalence of 29.6% (71/240) and 28.66% (43/150), respectively. In the two animal species the distribution of PPR virus was observed with the prevalence of 24.2% (46/190) in sheep and 34% (68/200) in goats. Statistically significant difference (p 0.05) in other hypothesized risk factors. This study revealed circulation and subsequent endemic establishment of PPR in sheep and goats in the selected study areas. This disease is detrimental to small ruminant welfare and causes substantial economic losses, thereby affecting the livelihood of poor farmers and pastoralists. The need for implementing feasible control measures is, therefore, eminent to minimize the losses associated with the disease.

Assessment of Small Ruminant Welfare in Ethiopia – An Abattoir-Based Study

ABSTRACT This paper presents the results of a cross-sectional study assessing the welfare of sheep and goats in a large abattoir in central Ethiopia, using qualitative and quantitative approaches. A total of 384 nonhuman animals (192 sheep and 192 goats) underwent clinical examination and behavioral observation in 2014. The study also included behavioral observation of 57 animal handlers, and a qualitative assessment of animal welfare conditions at the abattoir. Clinical examination revealed dirty wool/hair (54.9%), poor body condition (15.8%), and respiratory disorders (14.0%). The most commonly observed behaviors were refusing to move (17.1%), panting (15.8%) and reversing (10.4%). Significantly higher proportion of sheep exhibited resistance behaviors such as refusing to move (21.4% of sheep and 13.0% of goats; p < 0.030) and resistance to being pulled (12.5% of sheep and 6.3% of goats; p < 0.0036). Handlers frequently beat (87.7%), pushed (57.9%) and pulled (49.1%) the animals. Poor handling of animals was very common and could result in animal distress and falls. In collaboration with the abattoir workers, the authors developed simple good practice to improve welfare and reduce losses from poor welfare.

Temporal variations of herbage production and nutritive value of three grasslands at different elevation zones regarding grazing needs and welfare of ruminants.

Interannual and monthly variations of herbage production and nutritive value regarding grazing ruminants' needs and welfare were evaluated in three grasslands (semi-mountainous, mountainous and sub-alpine) located at different altitudes (480–900, 901–1500 and 1501–2334 m, respectively) in northern Greece during 2015–2016. Herbage biomass was collected from 30 experimental cages (10 per grassland), weighed, dried at 65 C, milled and analyzed for crude protein (CP), neutral detergent fiber (NDF), acid detergent fiber (ADF), lignin, calcium (Ca) and phosphorus (P) content and in vitro dry matter digestibility (IVDMD). The sub-alpine grassland was the most productive (1031 and 1231 kg DM ha) with the highest mean annual herbage CP content (93 and 87 g kg dry matter; DM) for 2015 and 2016, respectively. CP content was sufficient to meet small ruminants' and beef cattle maintenance requirements until April and May in the semi-mountainous and mountainous grasslands, respectively, while it could cover the above requirements in the sub-alpine grassland until June and August, respectively. The herbage Ca concentration was higher than the grazing ruminants' needs, while the phosphorus concentration was insufficient. Protein and phosphorus supplementation should be provided to animals to cover their maintenance requirements during the whole period and to reach high levels of welfare. Even though grazing is considered as a welfare-friendly procedure, it is uncertain whether all the welfare principals are satisfied in extensive production systems due to variations of forage availability and nutritive value as well as the lack of infrastructure in grasslands.

Microbiomes associated with bovine periodontitis and oral health

Periodontitis is an infectious polymicrobial, immuno-inflammatory disease of multifactorial aetiology that has an impact on the health, production and welfare of ruminants. The objective of the present study was to determine the microbial profiles present in the gingival sulcus of cattle considered periodontally healthy and in the periodontal pocket of animals with periodontitis lesions using high-throughput bacterial 16S rRNA gene sequencing. Subgingival biofilm samples were collected from 40 cattle with periodontitis and 38 periodontally healthy animals. In total, 1923 OTUs were identified and classified into 395 genera or higher taxa. Microbial profiles in health differed significantly from periodontitis in their composition (p < 0.0001, F = 5.30; PERMANOVA) but no statistically significant differences were observed in the diversity of healthy and periodontitis microbiomes. The most prevalent taxa in health were Pseudomonas, Burkholderia and Actinobacteria, whereas in disease these were Prevotella, Fusobacterium and Porphyromonas. The most discriminative taxa in health were Gastranaerophilales, Planifilum and Burkholderia, and in disease these were Elusimicrobia, Synergistes and Propionivibrio. In conclusion, statistically significant difference exists between the microbiome in bovine oral health and periodontitis, with populations showing 72.6% dissimilarity. The diversity of the bacteria found in health and periodontitis were similar and bacteria recognised as periodontal pathogens showed increased abundance in disease. In this context, the main components of bacterial homeostasis in the biofilm of healthy sites and of dysbiosis in periodontal lesions provide unprecedented indicators for the evolution of knowledge about bovine periodontitis.

Seroprevalence of Peste Des Petits Ruminants in Selected Districts of Siltie and Gurage Zones, South Region, Ethiopia

A cross-sectional study to investigate Peste des Petits Ruminants (PPR) seroprevalence was conducted between November 2014 and May 2015 in selected districts of Siltie and Gurage zones, south region, Ethiopia. A total of 390 serum samples were collected from sheep and goats. Competitive Enzyme Linked Immunosorbent Assay (c-ELISA) was used to detect the presence of antibodies in the sera of animals as indicator of exposure to the PPR virus. The total apparent prevalence was found to be 29.2% (114/390), indicating the spread of PPR virus throughout the study areas with silti and meskan districts experiencing the prevalence of 24.2% and 33%, respectively. Study animals were categorized into two age groups as young and adult, with prevalence of 25.9% and 31.8%, respectively. Out of total 390 samples, 240 serum samples were from male and 150 serum samples from female with prevalence of 29.6% (71/240) and 28.66% (43/150), respectively. In the two animal species the distribution of PPR virus was observed with the prevalence of 24.2% (46/190) in sheep and 34% (68/200) in goats. Statistically significant difference (p 0.05) in other hypothesized risk factors. This study revealed circulation and subsequent endemic establishment of PPR in sheep and goats in the selected study areas. This disease is detrimental to small ruminant welfare and causes substantial economic losses, thereby affecting the livelihood of poor farmers and pastoralists. The need for implementing feasible control measures is, therefore, eminent to minimize the losses associated with the disease.

Small ruminant welfare: Levelling the playing field or raising the bar—A European perspective

There is a diversity of small ruminant production systems across Europe, which range from extensive upland and mountain systems with a low stocking rate and sometimes minimal supervision to more intensive and/or housed systems, for example for milk production from sheep and goats. This diversity, more prevalent than for other livestock species, leads to difficulties in evaluating the welfare of the individual animals concerned (because the experiences of animals are so different) with a related difficulty in creating common criteria for evaluating welfare across Europe as a whole, and in individual countries. Nevertheless, even without a valid, transparent and agreed basis for the evaluation of individual enterprises, it is still possible for livestock advisers and veterinarians, in collaboration with producers, to be proactive and to recommend on-farm measures, which could raise the general standard of care and, importantly, to have a major impact on the welfare of individual animals in these systems.

Physiological, biochemical and histopathological effects of fermentative acidosis in ruminant production: a minimal review

Rumen acidosis is increasingly recognized as a significant disorder in ruminants that increases the morbidity and mortality of animals, especially for dairy cattle and sheep. Acidosis is not just D-lactate which disturbs the acid-base status and the severity of acidosis is related to many factors and not only due to the level of lactic acid production, resulting in difficulties in diagnosing acidosis. Therefore, an understanding of the physiological, biochemical, and histopathological effects of rumen acidosis is fundamental for developing effective methods of prevention and treatment of fermentative acidosis. The present review evaluates the physiology, biochemistry, and pathophysiology of fermentative acidosis as well as gives a conclusion and look-forward. The information will benefit the health and welfare of ruminants and contribute to modern systems of ruminant production.

Serological investigation of Peste des Petits Ruminants (PPR) in small ruminants managed under pastoral and agro-pastoral systems in Ethiopia

A cross-sectional study to investigate Peste des Petits Ruminants (PPR) seroprevalence was conducted between October 2009 and April 2010 in Gambella and Afar regions of Ethiopia. A total of 1163 serum samples were collected from 251 sheep and 912 goats. Competitive Enzyme Linked Immunosorbent Assay (c-ELISA) was used to detect the presence of antibodies in the sera of animals as indicator of exposure to the PPR virus. The results showed an overall individual animal seroprevalence of 30.9% (359/1163) with 29.5% in sheep and 31.3% in goats. The disease affected 96.9% (22/23) of the villages in Gambella and all the villages (9/9) in the Afar regions. The intra-village prevalence records range was 8.3–42.9% and 32.6–54.8%, and 0–66.7% and 0–71.4% for sheep and goats in Afar and Gambella regions, respectively. The high village-level seroprevalence of PPR illustrates a remarkable contagious nature of the disease. Multivariable logistic regression analysis of exposure variables revealed a significant association of PPR seroprevalence with districts and sex. Accordingly, seroprevalence was significantly higher in Adaar district of Afar (OR = 1.7, 95% CI: 1.1, 2.6) when compared to districts of Gambella region. Likewise, females were more likely to be seropositive (OR = 1.9, 95% CI: 1.2, 3.0) than their male counterparts. In conclusion, this study revealed a high seroprevalence and subsequent endemic establishment of PPR in small ruminants in the selected study areas. This disease is detrimental to small ruminant welfare and causes substantial economic losses, thereby affecting the livelihood of poor farmers and pastoralists. The need for implementing feasible control measures is, therefore, eminent to minimize the losses associated with the disease.

Effects of environmental pollutants on the reproduction and welfare of ruminants

Anthropogenic pollutants comprise a wide range of synthetic organic compounds and heavy metals, which are dispersed throughout the environment, usually at low concentrations. Exposure of ruminants, as for all other animals, is unavoidable and while the levels of exposure to most chemicals are usually too low to induce any physiological effects, combinations of pollutants can act additively or synergistically to perturb multiple physiological systems at all ages but particularly in the developing foetus. In sheep, organs affected by pollutant exposure include the ovary, testis, hypothalamus and pituitary gland and bone. Reported effects of exposure include changes in organ weight and gross structure, histology and gene and protein expression but these changes are not reflected in changes in reproductive performance under the conditions tested. These results illustrate the complexity of the effects of endocrine disrupting compounds on the reproductive axis, which make it difficult to extrapolate between, or even within, species. Effects of pollutant exposure on the thyroid gland, immune, cardiovascular and obesogenic systems have not been shown explicitly, in ruminants, but work on other species suggests that these systems can also be perturbed. It is concluded that exposure to a mixture of anthropogenic pollutants has significant effects on a wide variety of physiological systems, including the reproductive system. Although this physiological insult has not yet been shown to lead to a reduction in ruminant gross performance, there are already reports indicating that anthropogenic pollutant exposure can compromise several physiological systems and may pose a significant threat to both reproductive performance and welfare in the longer term. At present, many potential mechanisms of action for individual chemicals have been identified but knowledge of factors affecting the rate of tissue exposure and of the effects of combinations of chemicals on physiological systems is poor. Nevertheless, both are vital for the identification of risks to animal productivity and welfare.