Wechsler Intelligence Scale For Children-Revised Subtests Research Articles

Cognitive function in Indonesian children with type 1 diabetes mellitus

Background Children with type 1 diabetes mellitus (T1DM) are at risk of cognitive impairment. While the pathophysiology is still unclear, cognitive impairment in children with T1DM can result in significant negative effects on quality of life. 
 Objective to evaluate the cognitive function of Indonesian children with T1DM and its association with glycemic control and to identify factors affecting cognitive function in children with T1DM.
 Methods The cognitive function of children aged 6 years or older with T1DM was measured using the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children-Revised (WISC-R). We analyzed for potential associations between cognitive function and glycemic control based on mean HbA1c levels and other factors, such as the age of onset, duration of illness, and maternal educational attainment. We also identified failure to achieve age-appropriate results on any of the WISC-R subtests (cognitive impairment) and associated factors. 
 Results A total of 46 subjects were included in this study, with a mean age of 12.8 (SD 3.4) years. There were 27 (58.7%) girls and 19 (41.3%) boys. Subjects’ mean full-scale IQ (FSIQ) was 91.35 (SD 11.43). A moderate negative correlation was found between FSIQ and mean HbA1c levels (r=-0.43; P<0.01). Children with mothers who had university degrees had significantly higher IQs (mean difference 7.39; 95%CI 3.10 to 13.66; P=0.02) than those with mothers without degrees. Failure of any WISC-R subtest was noted in 34 subjects, consisting of 17 verbal, 1 performance, and 34 verbal and performance subtests. A higher proportion of those with cognitive impairment had mean HbA1c >10%. However, compared to those with mean HbA1c ?10, the difference did not reach a statistical significance (OR 5.0; 95%CI 0.95 to 26.31; P=0.50)
 Conclusion Glycemic control and maternal educational attainment are associated with cognitive function in Indonesian children with T1DM. Poor glycemic control is also associated with a higher risk of cognitive impairment.

Psychiatric symptomatology, behaviors related to executive functions and social responsiveness in children and youth with spina bifida

The present study aimed: 1. To determine if children with SB demonstrate psychiatric disorders more than typically developing children 2. To assess if children with SB have more problems in executive functions and social responsiveness than TD children. 3. To investigate their relationship with neurologic level, ambulation status and presence of hydrocephalus. Thirty-one patients (age 6–15 years) with spina bifida and age-and gender-matched 36 controls without any chronic health condition, were assessed by a detailed form for sociodemographic characteristics. Kiddie Schedule for Affective Disorders and Schizophrenia Present and Lifetime Version for clinical psychiatric diagnoses were also evaluated. Also, four subtests of Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children-Revised (WISC-R) and Childhood Autism Rating Scale were administered by the clinician. Parents of the participants completed Behavioral Rating Inventory of Executive Functions (BRIEF), Social Responsiveness Scale (SRS) and Aberrant Behavior Checklist. Compared to healthy controls; psychiatric disorder rates, SRS total scores, BRIEF planning and organization subscores were higher in children and adolescents with spina bifida. Furthermore, WISC-R subtest scores were lower in this group. Psychiatric diagnosis rate did not differ among spinal lesion levels (upper vs. lower). Initiate and organization of materials subscores of BRIEF were significantly higher in lower lesion level group than upper lesion level cases. And also metacognition index, initiate and organization of materials were significantly higher in community ambulators than non-community ambulators. SRS total score was significantly higher in children with spina bifida ( P = 0.021). Children with spina bifida have more psychiatric problems, demonstrated impairments in planning and organization and may have problems in social functioning when compared to their same age peers without chronic disease. Lesion level and mobility status have an impact on metacognition index, initiate and organization of materials subscales of BRIEF.

Comparing Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder and Oppositional Defiant Disorder Singly and Together in Terms of Behavioral Problems, Family Conflict, and Cognitive Functions.

Objectives:The purpose of this study is to profile three groups of children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), oppositional defiant disorder (ODD), and both ADHD and ODD, through analyzing their cognitive abilities, personality traits, and family characteristics.Methods:The study included 60 patients, with 20 patients in each group. Patients were selected according to the DSM IV criteria. They completed the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children–Revised (WISC-R) and the Bender Visual Motor Gestalt Test, and their mothers filled out the Child Behavior Checklist (CBCL) and Marital Conflict Questionnaire.Results:There were no significant differences in picture completion, block design, and coding, which are the WISC-R subtests, between the three groups. In addition, there was no significant difference in verbal, performance, and WISC-R scores. Finally, there was no significant difference when the subdivisions of the CBCL externalizing and internalizing behaviors were analyzed individually. The Frequency of Marital Conflict Score and Conflict Expansion Score were analyzed, and there were no significant differences found between the three groups. The highest average of the Bender Visual Motor Gestalt Test was in the ODD group, whereas the lowest average was in the ADHD group.Conclusion:When comparing ADHD and ODD in terms of cognitive abilities, the observed differences may be because ODD has no genetic or organic component, and ADHD has an organic basis. In ODD, cognitive abilities are intact, which should underline the environmental and family factors.

ANALYZING OF WECHSLER INTELLIGENCE SCALE FOR CHILDREN-REVISED (WISC-R) IN ATTENTION DEFICIT AND HYPERACTIVITY DISORDER: PREDICTIVE VALUE OF SUBTESTS, KAUFMAN AND BANNATYNE CATEGORIES

The aim of this study is to evaluate the predictive value of intelligence quotients scores (IQs), subtests of Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children-Revised (WISC-R) and Kaufman's and Bannatyne's categories scores which are the sums of subtests of WISC-R in attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). Another aim is to examine the difference of some neurocognitive skills between the children with ADHD and their unaffected peers by WISC-R subtests. WISC-R's subtest and IQ scores, and scores of Kaufman's and Bannatyne's categories of the children who were diagnosed with only ADHD were compared with the same scores of the children who were in healthy control group (N= 111) and were in ADHD with co morbidity group (N= 82). It was found that the subtest scores (vocabulary, comprehension, digit span, picture completion and block design) of the children with only ADHD and ADHD with comorbidity were significantly lower than healthy group. It was observed that subtests of comprehension (Wald= 5.47, df= 1, p=0.05), digit span (Wald= 16.79, df= 1, p=0.001) and picture completion (Wald= 5.25, df= 1, p=0.05) predicted significantly ADHD. In addition, the categories of freedom from distractibility (Wald= 8.22, df= 1, p=0.01) and spatial abilities (Wald= 12.22, df= 1, p<0.0001) were predictive for ADHD in this study. Problem solving abilities in social processes, auditory short-term memories, visual-spatial abilities and visual configuration abilities of the children with ADHD was observed to be lower than their healthy peers. It was thought that in WISC-R's profile analysis, the categories of freedom from distractibility and spatial abilities can be distinctive in ADHD diagnose.

Paternal X could relate to arithmetic function; study of cognitive function and parental origin of X chromosome in Turner syndrome

45,X Turner syndrome (TS) female subjects have visuospatial skill and social cognition deficits that may arise from X-linked imprinting. The aim of the present study was to compare phenotypic characteristics and neurocognitive pattern of 12 monosomic TS girls, according to X-linked imprinting. Microsatellite markers were used to determine the parental origin of the missing chromosome X. Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children-Revised (WISC-R) was administered as measures of general intellectual functioning. The results were compared in TS patients with maternally derived X chromosome (Xm) and paternally derived X chromosome (Xp). Six out of 12 patients (50%) had Xm, and the other six (50%) had Xp chromosome. There was no difference in the total, verbal and performance IQ score between the TS subgroups with Xm and Xp. When the WISC-R subtest score patterns were compared, the mean arithmetic scores were significantly poorer in the Xm TS than in the Xp TS. In monosomic TS cases, paternal imprinting may predict arithmetic ability, on the other hand, reductionist consideration defined by genetic imprinting is not sufficient to confirm this. Further studies should be undertaken to clarify this situation.

WISC-R Subtest But No Overall VIQ–PIQ Difference in Dutch Children with PDD-NOS

VIQ-PIQ differences have been studied in children with autism and Asperger syndrome but have not been studied in a separate group of children with PDD-NO, although, PDD-NOS has a much higher prevalence rate than autism and deficits in communication and social interaction are severe. The Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children-Revised (WISC-R) was administered to 100 children, aged 6-12 years, with PDD-NOS (n = 76), autism (n = 13), and Asperger syndrome (n = 11). PDD-NOS was diagnosed using explicit research criteria. No overall differences between VIQ and PIQ were found in PDD-NOS and autism. Peaks in the subtest scores on Information, Similarities, Picture Arrangement, and Mazes, and troughs in the subtest scores on Comprehension, Digit Span, and Coding were demonstrated in children with PDD-NOS. Their score on the Freedom from Distractibility factor was lower than the scores on the Verbal Comprehension factor and the Perceptual Organization factor. Children with PDD-NOS seemed to have a similar VIQ-PIQ profile as children with autism, and on the subtest level children with PDD-NOS showed some similarities to children with Asperger syndrome or autism. It was not possible to distinguish PDD-NOS from autism or Asperger syndrome by using IQ scores.

Sex differences in performance over 7 years on the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children--Revised among adults with intellectual disability.

The aim of this study was to explore changes related to sex differences on the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children - Revised (WISC-R) subtest performance over a 7-year interval in middle-aged adults with intellectual disability (ID). Cognitive sex differences have been extensively studied in the general population, but there are few reports concerning individuals with ID. Sex differences are of current relevance to actively debated issues such as cognitive changes during menopause and risk for Alzheimer's disease. Given that hormonal effects on cognition have been observed in the general population, particularly in areas such as visuospatial processing, and individuals with Down's syndrome (DS) have been reported to be hormonally and reproductively atypical, we analysed our data to allow for the possibility of an aetiology-specific profile of sex differences for these adults. The WISC-R subtests were administered in a longitudinal study, as part of a more comprehensive test battery, at least twice within 7 years. Participants were 18 females with ID without DS [age at first test time (time 1): mean = 40.5; IQ: mean = 59.3], 10 males with ID without DS (age at time 1: mean = 42.4; IQ: mean = 59.4), 21 females with DS (age at time 1: mean = 37.9; IQ: mean = 51.6), and 21 males with DS (age at time 1: mean = 40.3; IQ: mean = 54.3). All participants were in the mild to moderate range of ID and were displaying no changes suggestive of early dementia. Females, regardless of aetiology of ID, exhibited a robust superiority on the coding subtest, which parallels the widely reported difference among adults in the general population. Additionally, there was a decline in overall performance during the 7-year study interval, particularly on the verbal subscale subtests, but there was no evidence of sex-differentiated decline. There were also marginal sex by aetiology interactions on the object assembly and block design subtests, suggesting that males with unspecified ID might perform better than their female peers, but among adults with DS, females might do better than males. This study supports the presence of cognitive sex differences in the population with ID as indicated by female superiority on the WISC-R coding subtest. Extending this observation to adults with ID has implications for explanations of female advantage on this task, which now have to account for its presence among individuals with a broader range of intellectual capabilities, more atypical developmental histories and more varied genotypes than previously considered. Trends towards sex by aetiology interactions on the two visuoconstructive subtests, while marginal, were sufficient to warrant continued consideration of the idea of a distinct profile of sex differences for adults with DS and to justify looking at the effects of sex separately within different aetiologies of ID.

African–White IQ differences from Zimbabwe on the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children-Revised are mainly on the g factor

African–White differences on the sub-tests of the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children-Revised (WISC-R) in Zimbabwe are like the Black–White differences in the US in being positively associated with the sub-tests' g loadings ( g being the general factor of intelligence). Published means and S.D.s for 204 12- to 14-year-old Zimbabweans on 10 WISC-R sub-tests were compared against those for 1868 White Americans. A principal factor analysis of the correlation matrix from the US standardization sample for Whites, along with the point-biserial correlation of African–White standardized differences, showed that fully 77% of the between-group race variance was attributable to a single source, namely g.

Confirmatory Factor Analysis of the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children-Revised With Normal and Psychiatric Adolescents

The Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children-Revised (WISC-R) has received substantial factor analytic attention. The majority of these studies have been exploratory in nature and have supported Kaufman's (1979) finding of a three-factor solution. The few confirmatory factor analytic studies have provided some support for the three-factor interpretation over the two- and one-factor interpretations, but they have consistently failed to examine other potentially valuable models for the WISC-R. This study tested one, two-, three-, and four-factor models within both normal and psychiatric adolescent inpatient samples. For both samples, the Kaufman three-factor solution emerged with the best overall fit of the WISC-R subtest covariance structure. The remaining models (Guilford-Bannatyne, Bannatyne, Guilford, Horn, and single g) were found to be less applicable to the WISC-R subtest covariance structure and were effectively eliminated as explanatory models when applied to the WISC-R.

Relative Cognitive Complexity of the Kaufman Assessment Battery for Children (K-ABC) and the WISC-R

We evaluated whether abilities measured by the Kaufman Assessment Battery for Children (K-ABC)are as complex as those measured by the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children-Revised (WISC-R)within a sample of referred children. Results of factor and multidimensional scaling analyses indicated that abilities tapped by the K-ABC Mental Processing scale are not as complex as those assessed by the WISC-R. K-ABC Achievement scale subtests, however, seemed to assess skills as complex as those measured by many WISC-R subtests. The relative cognitive complexity of the K-ABC and the WISC-R seem comparable, but only when all the K-ABC subtests are administered.

Speed of information processing: A third factor of the WISC-R

The role of response time on the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children-Revised (WISC-R) was investigated. The complete WISC-R was administered to 131 children. A total response time (TRT) score for correct and incorrect performance was gleaned from each of the Picture Arrangement (PATRT), Block Design (BDTRT), and Object Assembly (OATRT) subtests. The utility of these response time measures was examined in relation to other WISC-R subtests. A principal factors analysis of the above data revealed that the three response time measures loaded on factors that were independent of the WISC-R subtests. However, a subsequent principal components factor analysis using orthogonal rotations produced three factors with eigenvalues greater than 1.0. Factors 1 and 2 accounted for 41.9% and 15.1% of the variability and were explained, respectively, by loadings from the Verbal and Performance scale subtests. Interestingly, only the three response time measures significantly loaded on the third factor, which accounted for 7.9% of the variability. The relationship between intelligence and the speed of information processing, as presented by the response measures, is discussed.

Hypochloremic Metabolic Alkalosis From Ingestion of A Chloride-Deficient Infant Formula: Outcome 9 and 10 Years Later

In 1978 and 1979 two infant formulas, Neo-Mull-Soy and Cho-Free, were found to be deficient in chloride. The Centers for Disease Control received reports that hypochloremic metabolic alkalosis (HMA) had developed in 141 children as a result of exposure to these formulas. Thirty-five of these children were examined at 9 and 10 years of age and compared with a group of 32 children who were exposed to the chloride-deficient formulas but were not reported to experience HMA and a group of 61 children who received chloride-sufficient soy formulas in infancy. The control children were matched to the HMA children on sex, race, age, and maternal education. Growth characteristics, performance on the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children-Revised (WISC-R), the Boston Naming Test, the Rey-Osterrieth Test, the Clinical Evaluation of Language Fundamentals-Revised (CELF-R), and subtests from several other speech and language tests were compared across the groups. After adjustment for family income and the level of the father's education, significantly lower scores were observed in the HMA children on the WISC-R Arithmetic subtest (mean = 10.5) compared with the soy control children (mean = 12.0, P less than .05) and on the WISC-R Coding subtest (mean = 9.0) compared with the soy control children (mean = 10.8, P less than .01). All the WISC-R subtest scores were, however, within the normal range. Although no significant differences occurred on the CELF-R between groups, the risk of an HMA child falling below the range expected for a standard population was increased on the CELF-R Composite Total, Receptive, and Expressive Language scores: risk ratios = 2.14, 2.14, and 3.03 respectively. Significant differences were observed between the children exposed, both HMA and non-HMA children, and the soy control children for behavioral problems as determined by the Achenbach Childhood Behavioral Checklist. It is concluded that as a group, children with documented HMA appear to have recovered from their growth failure and have normal cognitive development. They may, however, be at risk for deficits in language skills that require expressive language abilities.

Intellectual functioning in Fragile X syndrome school children

Aspects of intellectual function were investigated in a school age sample of Fragile X individuals employing the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children — Revised (WISC-R). Results indicated that the general ability of the sample was substantially below normaltive average. More important, this result was forced by the significantly lower performances of males compated with females. With the exception of one skill, females had significantly higher WISC-R sub-test scores than males. The exception was for Digit Span indicating that females had a specific weakness in short-term memory. There was a nonsignificant negative correlation between X fragility and IQ for males. There was no correlation between fragility and IQ for females. There was a nonsignificant negative correlation between age and IQ for females. There was no correlation between age and IQ for males. These results are discussed in terms of previous findings and their implications for education of Fragile X individuals.

Identifying Attention Deficit Hyperactive Disorder with the WISC-R and the Stroop Color and Word Test

Twenty-nine children with a diagnosis of Attention Deficit Hyperactive Disorder (ADHD) were compared to a group of 21 emotionally disturbed (ED) children and a control group (CO) of 20 nonproblem children. The meaures used in the comparison were the 12 subtests of the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children-Revised (WISC-R) and the Stroop Color and Word Test (SCWT). The results showed that the CO group was superior to the ADHD and ED groups and that the ED group performed better than the ADHD group on most of the variables. A stepwise discriminant function analysis showed that similar WISC-R subtests differentiated between the ADHD group and the ED and CO groups. Two measures of the SCWT helped in discriminating between the ADHD and ED groups, but not between the ADHD and CO groups. The authors discuss the meaning of these findings and their contribution to better understanding of the ADHD group, its specific cognitive processing, and its problems.

Assessing the Commonality of the WISC-R and the Halstead-Reitan Neuropsychological Test Battery with Learning-Disordered Children

The present investigation examined the neuropsychological constructs that underlie the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children-Revised (WISC-R). Data from administrations of the Halstead-Reitan Neuropsychological Test Battery (HRNB) and WISC-R were gathered for 1,079 learning-disabled children. A multiple regression analysis was employed to examine the contribution of each HRNB measure in the prediction of individual WISC-R subtests. Overall, verbal auditory discrimination presented as the most salient underlying construct of the WISC-R Verbal subtests, followed by concept formation and nonverbal auditory discrimination. Neuropsychological measures of the HRNB that involved perceptual organization were found to play a key role in defining the underlying constructs of the WISC-R Performance subtests. Similar to the above procedure, a second analysis was performed to assess the neuropsychological underpinnings of Kaufman's three factors (Verbal Comprehension, Perceptual Organization, and Freedom from Distractibility). Of the three factors, the HRNB measures explained similar amounts in the Freedom from Distractability (21%) and the Perceptual Organization (20.9%) factors in contrast to the Verbal Comprehension (7.3 %0) factor. Overall, these results indicate an interrelationship among several basic neuropsychological processes and higher-level cognitive functioning as represented on the WISC-R.

Factor analysis of the WISC-R and the Adaptive Behavior Scale-School Edition for a referral sample

The purpose of this study was to determine if a common factor structure was evident in the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children-Revised (WISC-R) and the Adaptive Behavior Scale-School Edition (ABS-SE) for a sample of 171 children referred for evaluation of learning and behavior problems. The WISC-R subtests (excluding Mazes) and the ABS-SE factor domain scores (Personal Self-Sufficiency, Community Self-Sufficiency, Personal-Social Responsibility, Social Adjustment, and Personal Adjustment) were subjected to an exploratory principal-components factor analysis with varimax rotation. ANOVAs were conducted on each of the derived factors to determine race and sex effects. The results indicated no common factor structure in the instruments, the Verbal Comprehension, Perceptual Organization, Independent Functioning, Maladaptive Behavior, and Freedom From Distractibility factors being extracted. The derived factors were very similar to those identified in standardization data and other studies. Perceptual Organization and Social Adjustment showed sex and race effects, respectively, although each model accounted for only about 7% of the variance.

Genetic and environmental covariance structures among WISC-R subtests: A twin study

Genetic and environmental correlations among 11 Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children-Revised (WISC-R) subtests were estimated from a sample of 143 twin pairs using the methodology of multivariate behavioral genetics. The genetic correlations among subtests varied in magnitude and exhibited a pattern similar to corresponding phenotypic correlations. Correlations due to within-pair environmental influences were generally small, whereas those due to shared environmental influences tended to be intermediate. Several hypotheses regarding the structures of the additive-genetic, common environmental, and within-pair environmental covariance matrices were tested and evidence for differential factor structures was obtained. A model hypothesizing a three-factor structure for the genetic covariance matrix, a single factor for the common environmental matrix, and a single factor plus specifics for the within-pair environmental matrix fit the data well. Thus, the three-factor phenotypic structure typically observed in Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC) data may be due largely to genetic influences.

Evaluation of the kennedy‐elder abbreviated IQ formula with emotionally disturbed adolescents

The Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children-Revised (WISC-R) was administered to 120 emotionally disturbed adolescents, using standard assessment procedures and format as outlined by Wechsler (1974). Abbreviated IQ scores then were derived by applying the Kennedy-Elder (1982) formula, an equation that uses five WISC-R subtests with varied weightings. Comparisons between the standard IQ scores and the abbreviated IQ scores were evaluated. A Pearson product-moment correlation coefficient of .948 and a nonsignificant t-test between the mean IQs suggested that the two scores were interchangeable. However, frequent IQ classification changes (25%) rendered the K-E format unacceptable for this population.

Multiple regression data using the WISC-R and the Woodcock-Johnson tests of cognitive ability

Using a sample of 100 behavior disordered male adolescents, correlations between the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children-Revised (WISC-R) and the Woodcock-Johnson Tests of Cognitive Abilities (WJTCA) were computed. All WISC-R subtests correlated with the W-J Broad Cognitive Ability score at the .0001 level. Analysis of the forward selection multiple regression procedure resulted in the inclusion of only WISC-R Verbal subtests for the first six steps. Implications of such results were discussed and a predictive equation reported.

Correlations between the Woodcock-Johnson and the WISC-R for a behavior disordered population

Correlations between the Woodcock-Johnson Test of Cognitive Abilities (WJTCA) and the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children-Revised (WISC-R) were evaluated on a sample of 55 behavior disordered males, 28 of whom were also diagnosed as learning disabled. Concurrent validity for this sample was demonstrated by only a 2.33 point difference between the mean WJTCA Broad Cognitive score and the mean WISC-R Full Scale IQ score. Analysis of Pearson product-moment correlations between each WISC-R subtest and each Woodcock-Johnson cluster score substantiated previous assertions that the WJTCA is unduly weighted with Product-Dominant factors. Construct validity of some of the WJTCA clusters also was questioned. Implications of these results for behavior disordered populations were discussed.