Wechsler Individual Achievement Test-Second Edition Research Articles

Low Working Memory rather than ADHD Symptoms Predicts Poor Academic Achievement in School-Aged Children.

This study examined whether working memory (WM), inattentive symptoms, and/or hyperactive/impulsive symptoms significantly contributed to academic, behavioral, and global functioning in 8-year-old children. One-hundred-sixty 8-year-old children (75.6% male), who were originally recruited as preschoolers, completed subtests from the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children-Fourth Edition, Integrated and Wechsler Individual Achievement Test-Second Edition to assess WM and academic achievement, respectively. Teachers rated children's academic and behavioral functioning using the Vanderbilt Rating Scale. Global functioning, as rated by clinicians, was assessed by the Children's Global Assessment Scale. Multiple linear regressions were completed to determine the extent to which WM (auditory-verbal and visual-spatial) and/or inattentive and hyperactive/impulsive symptom severity significantly contributed to academic, behavioral, and/or global functioning. Both auditory-verbal and visual-spatial WM but not ADHD symptom severity, significantly and independently contributed to measures of academic achievement (all p<0.01). In contrast, both WM and inattention symptoms (p<0.01), but not hyperactivity-impulsivity (p>0.05) significantly contributed to teacher-ratings of academic functioning. Further, inattention and hyperactivity/impulsivity (p<0.04), but not WM (p>0.10) were significantly associated with teacher-ratings of behavioral functioning and clinician-ratings of global functioning. Taken together, it appears that WM in children may be uniquely related to academic skills, but not necessarily to overall behavioral functioning.

Predicting verbal fluency using Word Reading: Implications for premorbid functioning

ABSTRACTThe estimation of premorbid general intellectual functioning using word reading tests has a rich history of validation and is a common assessment practice for neuropsychologists. What is less well-researched is the approach used to estimate premorbid functioning of non-intellectual domains, such as executive functions, including verbal fluency. The current study evaluated this relationship with 41 adult college students who completed the Word Reading subtest of the Wechsler Individual Achievement Test-Second Edition (WIAT-II) and the Verbal Fluency test from the Delis–Kaplan Executive Function System (D-KEFS). Path analysis indicated that only Letter Fluency (a measure of phonemic fluency) was statistically significantly related to Word Reading and the relationship was somewhat weak. The relationship between Category Fluency (a measure of semantic fluency) and Category Switching (a measure of verbal fluency cognitive set-shifting) to Word Reading was nonsignificant. Participants also completed the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale-Third Edition (WAIS-III), and as expected a strong relationship was found between Word Reading and the Verbal IQ (VIQ), Performance IQ (PIQ), and Full Scale Intelligence Quotient (FSIQ). Results of this study strongly suggest that caution be exercised when extrapolating an estimate of premorbid verbal fluency abilities from measures of word reading.

Cognitive factors contributing to spelling performance in children with prenatal alcohol exposure.

Heavy prenatal alcohol exposure is associated with impaired school functioning. Spelling performance has not been comprehensively evaluated. We examined whether children with heavy prenatal alcohol exposure demonstrate deficits in spelling and related abilities, including reading, and tested whether there are unique underlying mechanisms for observed deficits in this population. Ninety-six school-age children made up 2 groups: children with heavy prenatal alcohol exposure (AE, n = 49) and control children (CON, n = 47). Children completed select subtests from the Wechsler Individual Achievement Test-Second Edition and the NEPSY-II. Group differences and relations between spelling and theoretically related cognitive variables were evaluated using multivariate analysis of variance and Pearson correlations. Hierarchical regression analyses were used to assess contributions of group membership and cognitive variables to spelling performance. The specificity of these deficits and underlying mechanisms was tested by examining the relations between reading ability, group membership, and cognitive variables. Groups differed significantly on all variables. Group membership and phonological processing significantly contributed to spelling performance, whereas for reading, group membership and all cognitive variables contributed significantly. For both reading and spelling, group × working memory interactions revealed that working memory contributed independently only for alcohol-exposed children. Alcohol-exposed children demonstrated a unique pattern of spelling deficits. The relation of working memory to spelling and reading was specific to the AE group, suggesting that if prenatal alcohol exposure is known or suspected, working memory ability should be considered in the development and implementation of explicit instruction.

Writing Disabilities and Reading Disabilities in Elementary School Students

This longitudinal study was conducted to determine (a) the rate of co-occurrence of reading disabilities (RDs) in a writing disability (WD) population of students followed from first grade to fourth grade and (b) the cognitive burden that is assumed by having a WD and a RD (WD + RD). The sample included 137 first-grade students from a single school district who initially were placed into three groups based on the Wechsler Individual Achievement Test–Second Edition (WIAT-II) Written Expression subtest: Typically Developing (TD; n = 83), WD-Only ( n = 38), and WD + RD ( n = 16). Results indicated that the rate of a WD + RD increased with advancing grades, ranging from 30% in first grade to 47% in fourth grade. This increase was secondary to the instability of group membership across all three groups. The number of students with a WD + RD remained relatively constant over the 4 years, with about 50% of first-grade students with a WD + RD continuing to manifest this co-occurrence through the fourth grade. There was increased cognitive burden for the students in the WD + RD group across the four grades in language and executive dysfunctions. Along with the use of progress monitoring strategies for both reading and writing in the early grades, these findings suggest the importance of assessing the cognitive underpinnings for students with a WD + RD.

Reliability and Validity of Advanced Phonics Measures

Two studies explored the technical adequacy of various measures of advanced phonics skills. In Study 1, the advanced phonics measures consisted of pseudowords, real words, or a combination of both. Participants included 39 students in the third grade. Test–retest correlations for all measures were above .8 and interrater reliability was high. Correlations between the three advanced phonics measures and two subtests from the Wechsler Individual Achievement Test–Second Edition (WIAT-II) and Dynamic Indicators of Basic Early Literacy Skills (DIBELS), nonsense word fluency (NWF), and oral reading fluency (ORF) were moderate to moderately strong. The measures containing real words or a combination of pseudowords and real words performed best. The real word and combined pseudoword and real word advanced phonics measures were further studied along with a measure of multisyllabic word reading in Study 2 with 162 second and third graders. The advanced phonics measures were strongly correlated with Test of Word Reading Efficiency (TOWRE) scores. In both studies, regression analyses indicated the probe containing a mix of real and pseudowords was one of the few variables that made a significant prediction to criterion measures of phonics skills when all predictors were entered at once.

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There is significant debate over the value and ethics of IQ testing for children, including those from diverse cultural groups, particularly in light of studies examining performance on various subtests that are uncovering important processing differences between cultural and linguistic groups (Sotelo-Dynega, Ortiz, Flanagan, &amp; Chaplin, 2013). Whereas the predictive validity of IQ has been well established, the link between general intelligence and general academic achievement remains unenlightening, particularly with respect to educational interventions and remediation of academic skills. In light of the importance of understanding the needs of diverse groups within educational and instructional settings, the present study investigated the differential predictive validity of WISC-IV, Full Scale IQ, Index, and subtest scores for components of reading achievement for European American, African American, and Latino American children. Using data from the WISC-IVWIAT-II standardization sample, Full-Scale IQ, Index, and subtest scores were used to predict Word Reading and Reading Comprehension scores on the Wechsler Individual Achievement Test, Second Edition (WIAT-II) using forced-entry multiple regression analyses. In general, the results emphasized the importance of subtest analysis for understanding the nature of reading performance of all cultural groups. The amount of variance lost moving from subtest to Full Scale scores is greater in the African American group than the European American or Latino American groups. The amount of variance in components of reading performance accounted for by the Full Scale IQ differed amongst these groups. Findings are discussed in terms of the differences in the processes used in reading between these groups and point to the need for differentiated instruction and intervention to improve reading performance.

Does Size Matter? An Investigation Into the Rey Complex Figure in a Pediatric Clinical Sample

The Rey Complex Figure Test (RCF) copy requires visuoconstructional skills and significant attentional, organizational, and problem-solving skills. Most scoring schemes codify a subset of the details involved in figure construction. Research is unclear regarding the meaning of figure size. The research hypothesis of our inquiry is that size of the RCF copy will have neuropsychological significance. Data from 95 children (43 girls, 52 boys; ages 6–18 years) with behavioral and academic issues revealed that larger figure drawings were associated with higher RCF total scores and significantly higher scores across many neuropsychological tests including the Wechsler Individual Achievement Test-Second Edition (WIAT-II) Word Reading (F = 5.448, p = .022), WIAT-II Math Reasoning (F = 6.365, p = .013), Children's Memory Scale Visual Delay (F = 4.015, p = .048), Trail-Making Test-Part A (F = 5.448, p = .022), and RCF Recognition (F = 4.862, p = .030). Results indicated that wider figures were associated with higher cognitive functioning, which may be part of an adaptive strategy in helping facilitate accurate and relative proportions of the complex details presented in the RCF. Overall, this study initiates the investigation of the RCF size and the relationship between size and a child's neuropsychological profile.

Intrauterine substance exposures and Wechsler Individual Achievement Test-II scores at 11 years of age

The goal of this study was to evaluate whether intrauterine exposure to cocaine, alcohol, tobacco, or marijuana was associated with unique variance in children's academic achievement test scores after controlling for other substance exposures and contextual variables. Academic achievement scores (Wechsler Individual Achievement Test-Second Edition (WIAT-II)) were collected from 119, low-income, urban 11-year-olds enrolled in a prospective longitudinal study of intrauterine cocaine exposure (IUCE). Newborn recruitment eligibility included >36 weeks gestational age, no neonatal intensive care, no intrauterine exposure to illicit drugs except cocaine or marijuana, and no evidence of fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS). Intrauterine substance exposures (cocaine, marijuana, alcohol, tobacco) were documented in the newborn period using biological assays and maternal self-report. Multivariate analyses evaluated the relationship of each intrauterine exposure and each WIAT-II score controlling for contextual variables and the other substance exposures. In secondary analyses, the Child Depression Inventory (CDI) was added to final models. Results indicate that neither IUCE nor intrauterine exposure to marijuana or tobacco was associated with lower WIAT-II scores in multivariable analyses. Intrauterine alcohol exposure predicted significant variance in Math Reasoning and Spelling scores, but inclusion of children's depressive symptoms attenuated the relationship. Lower maternal education and maternal US birth were also associated with lower WIAT-II scores. Our analyses indicate that among low-income, urban 11-year-olds without a diagnosis of FAS, intrauterine alcohol exposure was negatively associated with math and spelling achievement scores after controlling for other intrauterine substance exposures and contextual factors. That relationship in this sample was partially mediated by children's depressive symptoms, but we cannot establish whether these lower achievement scores precede or follow depressive symptoms. Our findings highlight that neurobehavioral studies evaluating a primary potential neuroteratogen should evaluate other associated intrauterine exposures and contextual factors.

Early Developmental Delays: Neuropsychological Sequelae and Subsequent Diagnoses

Developmental delay is a frequent diagnosis given to young children when developmental milestones are not met in an age-expected time frame. Research on early delays in speech and motor milestones is unclear regarding possible long-term cognitive functioning. The purpose of this study was to investigate the neuropsychological profile of children who suffered early developmental delays in speech or motor function. Participants (N = 60) completed the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children-Fourth Edition, Wechsler Individual Achievement Test-Second Edition, Wisconsin Card-Sorting Test, Children's Memory Test (CMT), the Delis-Kaplan Executive Function System, and the Child Behavior Checklist/Youth Self-Report. The Delay group had a significantly lower Full-Scale IQ (FSIQ), and when controlling for IQ (analysis of covariance), the Delay group had significantly lower scores on measures of immediate and delayed visual memory skills (CMT). Group scores were not significantly different for any other tests. Neither group had any test scores significantly below FSIQ, a finding suggesting developmental delays may subsequently lead to weaknesses but not impairments. Results appear to support the resiliency of the young brain. Chi-square analysis showed the Delay group was more likely to subsequently be diagnosed with attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) but not learning disorders. Data appear to suggest that early developmental delays may place children as risk for ADHD and perhaps visual memory weaknesses, though not clear impairments.

Differential Ability Scales–II prediction of reading performance: Global scores are not enough

AbstractThis study investigated the effects of broad cognitive abilities derived from the Cattell–Horn–Carroll (CHC) taxonomy, together with the effect of the general factor (g), on Wechsler Individual Achievement Test, Second Edition (WIAT‐II) reading achievement. Structural equation modeling (SEM) and commonality analyses were applied to the Differential Ability Scales, Second Edition (DAS‐II) standardization and clinical sample data. All seven DAS‐II CHC broad cognitive abilities were shown to have significant effects on one or more WIAT‐II reading domains with different patterns found across typical, poor reader, and reading specific learning disability (SLD) groups. In the SEM analyses, the general factor g had only indirect effects on reading achievement variance. In the commonality analyses, after the effects of the seven CHC factors had been accounted for, the six‐factor commonality—which could be considered an alternative measure of global intelligence—accounted for only 1%–2% of reading measure variance. For children who are having difficulties with reading skill acquisition, the data suggest that primary emphasis on g will result in a major loss of DAS‐II predictive validity. Results emphasize the importance of having a comprehensive cognitive assessment with the DAS‐II in the evaluation of reading competency and disability. Links between CHC broad ability factors and neuropsychological constructs may provide a promising foundation for developing specific cognitive, academic, and behavioral interventions for children with reading SLD. © 2010 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

Wechsler Individual Achievement Test-III: What is the ‘Gold Standard’ for Measuring Academic Achievement?

The Wechsler Individual Achievement Test-Second Edition (WIAT-II) has traditionally competed with other popular achievement measures such as the Woodcock-Johnson Test of Achievement-Third Edition (...

WISC-IV and WIAT-II Profiles in Children With High-Functioning Autism

Children with high-functioning autism earned above normal scores on the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children-Fourth Edition (WISC-IV) Perceptual Reasoning and Verbal Comprehension Indexes and below normal scores on the Working Memory and Processing Speed Indexes and Wechsler Individual Achievement Test-Second Edition (WIAT-II) Written Expression. Full Scale IQ (FSIQ) and reading and math scores were similar to the norm. Profiles were consistent with previous WISC-III research, except that the new WISC-IV motor-free visual reasoning subtests (Matrix Reasoning and Picture Concepts) were the highest of the nonverbal subtests. The WISC-IV may be an improvement over the WISC-III for children with high-functioning autism because it captures their visual reasoning strength, while identifying their attention, graphomotor, and processing speed weaknesses. FSIQ was the best single predictor of academic achievement.

Kindergarten Reading Engagement

ABSTRACT This study examined psychometric properties of the Kindergarten Reading Engagement Scale (KRES), a brief teacher-report measure of classroom reading engagement. Participants were 27 students with identified reading deficits from a predominantly low-income, African-American community. Data were collected in kindergarten (Time 1) and first grade (Time 2). The KRES demonstrated strong internal consistency (Cronbach's alpha = .96) and modest test-retest reliability (r = .66). KRES ratings were significantly correlated with scores from the Word Reading subtest of the Wechsler Individual Achievement Test-Second Edition and the Sound Matching subtest of the Comprehensive Test of Phonological Processing, measured at Time 1 and Time 2. Strategies for refining the scale and implications for applying the KRES in school-based program evaluations are discussed.