Watershed Services Research Articles

Interregional watershed services: Valuation of the benefits of controlled embankment breaches to manage urban flood risk

The Lower Mekong delta of Vietnam, particularly Can Tho city, is highly susceptible to flooding which urgently calls for significant efforts to mitigate urban flood risks. A possible measure to reduce flood risk is the application of controlled embankment breaches (CEB) in a rural province upstream. Utilising a Protection Motivation Theory approach, this paper uses a contingent valuation to assess the welfare effects of a reduction of flood risks in the city resulting from CEB in the upstream region of the delta. The findings revealed that households residing in the downstream areas of Vietnamese Mekong Delta were willing to financially support the implementation of the CEB upstream in An Giang city, as a measure to alleviate urban flood threats in Can Tho city. These results suggest that interregional cooperation, involving the concept of payments for watershed services between regional jurisdictions, may help to effectively mitigate flood risk in a low-lying population centre in a major river delta. As such, these findings can inform policies for urban flood risk mitigation regarding the development of a more comprehensive flood risk reduction strategy in similar geographical contexts.

Evaluation and Optimization of Landscape Spatial Patterns and Ecosystem Services in the Northern Agro-Pastoral Ecotone, China

The alteration of landscape spatial patterns (LSPs) and ecosystem services (ESs) in watersheds can have detrimental effects on the local environment and community. However, a comprehensive understanding of the current state of LSPs and ESs in watersheds around Winter Olympic venues in China is limited. Here, we assessed current LSPs and ESs and developed optimization strategies for the Xigou watershed around Winter Olympic venues in the northern agro-pastoral ecotone of China. The results indicated that the main land use type was grassland in the Xigou watershed, and landscape types were relatively homogenous. All three ESs (water yield, sediment retention, and carbon storage) generally improved from 2004 to 2020. For ESs, there was the lowest total volume of water yield in 2004 (637.44 × 104 m3). But sediment retention (10.54 × 106 t, 18.13 × 106 t, 13.28 × 106 t, and 16.85 × 106 t) had an upward, then downward, then upward trend before and after ERP. Carbon storage grew steadily. Correlation analysis suggested that the three ESs were closely related to the landscape spatial indices of average patch area (AREA_MN), contagion index (CONTAG), and Shannon’s evenness index (SHEI). AREA_MN, CONTAG, and SHEI in the eastern part of the study area promoted sediment retention and carbon storage, while in the southwestern part of the study area, they inhibited water yield and sediment retention. The results suggest that improving sediment retention by optimizing land use and cover change (LUCC) and LSPs is the main approach to further enhance ESs in the study area. Our study suggests that the inclusion of multiple landscape pattern indices can provide a more comprehensive representation of regional ecosystem service.

Willingness to Pay for Watershed Services by Downstream Water Users in Babati District, Tanzania

Payment for Ecosystem Services promotes watershed management through Payment for Watershed Services. It encourages improved land management practices in upstream areas to enhance the quantity and quality of water downstream. The Nou Forest Reserve in Babati district covers Lake Manyara's headwaters. Its rivers are the primary water source for the area's inhabitants. However, there have been reports of declining water quality and quantity, presenting an opportunity to introduce payment for watershed services for Nou Forest Reserve conservation and management. The present study was conducted to assess the level of awareness among downstream water users about the importance of watersheds in providing sustainable water supply. Using the Contingent Valuation Method, the study estimated the communities’ willingness to pay for improved watershed services, analysed factors influencing capacity to pay, and examined possible operational modes for implementing payment mechanisms. A total of 155 domestic water users and 50 non-domestic water users were interviewed. It was found that 71% of domestic water users and 82% of non-domestic water users were willing to pay for improved watershed services, with a mean willingness to pay estimated at TAS 1261 per user/year for domestic water users and TAS 112322 per user/year for non-domestic water users. Factors such as gender, occupation, education, and farm size significantly (P<0.05) influenced water users' willingness to pay. Income was a significant factor in the willingness to pay for non-domestic water users, but it was not significant for domestic water users. The current study suggests that downstream water users in Babati district, who act as watershed service buyers, could collect a water user fee based on estimated amounts. This approach would help address declining water quality and quantity through improved watershed management and thus enhance watershed conservation and management.

Asymmetric response of vegetation GPP to impervious surface expansion: Case studies in the Yellow and Yangtze River Basins

Terrestrial gross primary production (GPP) changes due to impervious surfaces significantly impact ecosystem services in watersheds. Understanding the asymmetric response of vegetation GPP to impervious surface expansion is essential for regional development planning and ecosystem management. However, the asymmetric response of vegetation GPP to the impacts of impervious surface expansion is unknown in different watersheds. This paper selected the Yellow River and Yangtze River basins as case studies. We characterized the overall change in GPP based on changes in impervious surface ratio (ISR), determined impervious surface expansion's direct and indirect impacts on GPP in the two watersheds, and further analyzed the asymmetric response of the compensatory effects of indirect influences on the impervious surface expansion in different watersheds. The results showed that: (1) The vegetation GPP decreased with increasing ISR in the Yangtze River Basin, while that in the Yellow River Basin first increased and then reduced. (2) The direct impacts of increased ISR reduced vegetation GPP, while the indirect impacts both had a growth-compensating effect. Growth compensation stabilized at approximately 0.40 and 0.30 in the Yellow and Yangtze River Basins. (3) When the ISR was 0.34–0.56, the growth compensation could offset the reduction of GPP due to direct impact and ensure that the background vegetation GPP was not damaged in the Yellow River Basin. In contrast, the background vegetation GPP was inevitably impaired with increased ISR in the Yangtze River Basin. Therefore, this study suggests that the ISR should be ensured to be between 0.34 and 0.56 to maximize the impervious surface of the Yellow River Basin without compromising the background vegetation GPP. While pursuing impervious surface expansion in the Yangtze River Basin, other programs should be sought to compensate for the loss to GPP.

Grazing management impacts on ecosystem services under contrasting climatic conditions in Texas and North Dakota

Grazing management is an important factor affecting the delivery of ecosystem services at the watershed scale. Moreover, characterizing the impacts of climate variation on water resources is essential in managing rangelands. In this study, the effects of alternative grazing management scenarios on provisioning, regulating, and supporting services were assessed in two watersheds with contrasting climates; the Lower Prairie Dog Town Fork Red River (LPDTFR) Watershed in North Texas and the Apple Watershed in South Dakota. The impacts of heavy stocking continuous grazing, light stocking continuous grazing, Adaptive Multi-Paddock (AMP) grazing, and an ungrazed exclosure were compared using the Soil and Water Assessment Tool (SWAT) model. Our results indicate that the quantity of snow and timing of snow melt substantially influenced grazing management effects on ecosystem services in the Apple Watershed. In contrast, precipitation was the main factor influencing these effects in the LPDTFR Watershed because it highly affected the variation in water cycling, streamflow, sediment, and nutrient controls. Simulated results indicated that AMP grazing was the optimal grazing management approach for enhancing water conservation and ecosystem services in both watersheds regardless of climatic conditions. The Apple Watershed, which is a snow-dominated watershed, exhibited greater ecosystem service improvements under AMP grazing (50.6%, 58.7%, 74.4%, 61.5% and 72.6% reduction in surface runoff, streamflow, and sediment, total nitrogen (TN) and total phosphorus (TP) losses, respectively as compared to HC grazing) than the LPDTFR Watershed (46.0%, 22.8%, 34.1%, 18.9% and 38.4% reduction in surface runoff, streamflow, and sediment, TN and TP losses, respectively). Our results suggest that improved grazing management practices enhance ecosystem services and water catchment functions in rangeland-dominated areas, especially in colder climates.

Payments for Watershed Services and corporate green innovation

China is promoting Payments for Watershed Services (PWS) in increasing regions for water pollution mitigation. In this study, we provided empirical evidence on the influence of China's PWS programs on green innovation based on green patent data. Results show that PWS results in more R&D and green innovation at the corporate level. We attribute this to increased regulatory pressure on firms following PWS by providing evidence that firm-level environmental penalties are increased in upstream areas following PWS, and PWS's positive effect on R&D and green innovation is stronger in firms with more sewage discharge and environmental penalties. Moreover, firms that invested in wastewater treatment facilities may not increase as much green innovation as other firms after PWS. Furthermore, this positive effect is more pronounced among firms with more R&D staff, less financial constraints, lower market competition, and state-owned enterprises.

The need of ecohydrological research in tropical forests for healthy watersheds

Tropical forests play a critical role in providing clean water and maintaining healthy watersheds, yet they face numerous threats such as deforestation, land use change, and climate change. To address these challenges, there is a growing need for ecohydrological research that can inform land use planning and management strategies for healthy watersheds. Ecohydrology is an emerging science that seeks to understand the functional interactions between hydrology and biota. It quantifies and explains the relationships between hydrological processes and biotic dynamics as well as linkages among upland, riparian, and aquatic components on a watershed scale. However, most of the ecohydrological studies have been concentrated on temperate regions, and for tropical regions, such studies are lacking. This article argues that there is a high time to launch research for identifying critical ecohydrological functions and driving forces that regulate the quality and quantity of water, and their role in providing water-based ecosystem services in tropical watersheds. The article outlines the main challenges facing tropical forests and watersheds, and highlights the importance of interdisciplinary collaboration and long-term monitoring for effective ecohydrological research. It also provides examples of successful ecohydrological research projects in tropical forests, and discusses the potential benefits of investing in ecohydrological research for tropical forest conservation and watershed management. Overall, this article emphasizes the importance of ecohydrological research in tropical forests for healthy watersheds and calls for more attention and resources to be devoted to this field.

The effect of PWS arrangements on M&A activities

This paper investigates the effect of Payments for Watershed Services (PWS) on firms' mergers and acquisitions activities (M&A) in China. We find that PWS results in more M&A activities of firms. We attribute this to firms' increased operating risks following PWS by providing evidence that: (1) PWS increases firm-level environmental penalties in upstream areas; (2) PWS's positive effect on M&A is more pronounced in firms with more sewage discharge and environmental penalties; (3) The targets of increased M&A are more likely to be in non-polluting industries, and areas not affected by PWS; (4) PWS only increase M&A in upstream areas, but not in downstream. Our finding provides a plausibly causal effect of Payments for Watershed Services on firms' M&A activities.

Economic Valuation of Forest Ecosystem for Watershed Services in Kelantan, Malaysia

Preserving forest watershed areas has become crucial in capturing and storing water, contributing enough water supply for domestic and non-domestic purposes such as agriculture, recreation, and energy generation. Unlike primary goods such as food and fuel, most ecosystem services like watersheds do not have market values, where the protection of these services is barely considered in economic decisions. The study aims to estimate the value of the economic benefit of the forest ecosystem for watershed services in Kelantan by using the willingness to pay (WTP). The simple random method has been employed to collect the data via face to face to interviews with 1043 households in Kelantan. The finding of this study estimated the economic value of Kelantan’s forest ecosystem for watershed services amounted to RM48 million annually, which could be worthwhile for protection or conservation fees. The public’s interest in contributing to the forest watershed services in Kelantan indicates that relevant stakeholders need more collaborative effort, including non-governmental organisations and federal and state governments, to conserve and preserve the forest ecosystem in Malaysia, specifically for watershed services.

Spatially Non-Stationary Relationships between Changing Environment and Water Yield Services in Watersheds of China’s Climate Transition Zones

Identifying the spatial and temporal heterogeneity of water-related ecosystem services and the mechanisms influencing them is essential for optimizing ecosystem governance and maintaining watershed sustainable development. However, the complex and undiscovered interplay between human activities and natural factors underpins the solutions to the water scarcity and flooding challenges faced by climate transition zone basins. This study used a multiple spatial-scale analysis to: (i) quantify the spatial and temporal variations of the water yield ecosystem service (WYs) of the Wei River Basin (WRB) from 2000 to 2020 using the InVEST model and remote sensing data; and (ii) look at how human activities, climate, topography, and vegetation affect the WYs at the climate transition zone sub-catchment scale using the geographical detector model and multi-scale geographically weighted regression (MGWR). The conclusive research reveals that there would be a gradual increase in WYs between the years 2000 and 2020, as well as a distinct and very different spatial aggregation along the climatic divide. The average yearly precipitation was shown to be particularly linked to the water yield of the WRB. The interplay of human, climatic, plant, and terrain variables has a substantially higher influence than most single factors on the geographical differentiation of WYs. Bivariate enhancement and non-linear enhancement are the most common types of factor interactions. This shows that there are significant interactions between natural and human variables. Our study shows that precipitation and temperature are the main factors that cause WYs in the semi-arid zone. In the semi-humid zone, precipitation and vegetation are the key controlling factors that cause WYs. We provide new perspectives for understanding and optimizing ecosystem management by comparing the drivers of WYS in sub-basins with different climatic conditions. Based on the findings, we recommend that particular attention should be paid to ecosystem restoration practices in watersheds in climatic transition zones.

GIS-Based Remote Sensing Image Information Analysis of the South Atlantic Ecological Environment and Diversity of Deep-Sea Microorganism with Antifungal Effects

This paper uses the GIS technology to collect location and geographic information of the South Atlantic ecological environment and then uses the remote sensing image technology to extract and analyse the collected information to provide a strong basis for maintaining a healthy marine ecological environment. Based on multitemporal remote sensing images, this paper constructs an ecological vulnerability evaluation model for marine by coupling several ecological indicators, analyses the status of marine ecological environment and its dynamic changes, explores the driving factors of its changes, further analyses the relationship between ecological vulnerability, land use changes, and landscape patterns, and proposes targeted ecological protection countermeasures for marine ecological environment. This paper analyses and studies the quality control mechanism of marine environment monitoring data, the construction of marine environment evaluation model, and the automation of evaluation and early warning response based on the application of GIS, with the support of marine environment evaluation and early warning business, to enhance the availability and integrity of marine environment monitoring data, improve the execution efficiency of marine environment evaluation business and early warning response, reduce the risk of marine environment emergencies, and realize the integration and intelligence of marine environment evaluation and early warning, to improve the level of Informa ionization and management of marine environment evaluation business in marine management departments. The operational watershed ecological environment monitoring service system built in this paper, which integrates GIS, RS, GPS, data warehouse, and other information technologies, has the advantages of high accuracy of information extraction, convenient data management, good portability, and strong operability, which can provide a scientific basis for the unified scheduling management of the marine environment, ecological environment evaluation, and sustainable development planning of the economy, and it is of great theoretical and practical significance and can be used in other watersheds. Meanwhile, the unique environment of the ocean has endowed the marine microorganism with affluent diversity, which can display a variety of bioactivities. In this study, thirty-two seawater and sediment samples were collected from different depths within the scope of 5 m to 3203 m at 18 sampling sites in the South Atlantic Ocean. 1017 culturable strains were obtained after isolation and identification. The tip culture method was used to screen strains with antifungal and antiaflatoxigenic activities. The tip culture results showed that a total of thirty-one marine strains were confirmed to have significant antagonism against aflatoxin production with an inhibition ratio exceeding 80%, including 11 strains with a mycelial growth inhibition ratio exceeding 80% simultaneously. The variability of culturable bacterial distribution and diversity were studied by phylogenetic analysis of 16S rRNA sequences. Phylogenetic analysis of 16S rRNA sequences revealed a significant diversity of culturable strains. A total of 31 strains clustered into 13 genera: Marinobacter sp., Pseudomonas sp., Alteromonas sp., Idiomarina sp., Halomonas sp., Alcanivorax sp., Thalassospira sp., Jannaschia sp., Stakelama sp., Erythrobacter sp., Chengkuizengella sp., Bacillus sp., and Microbacterium sp. The 31 strains with antifungal and antiaflatoxigenic activities were dominated by populations of strains belonging to the genus Thalassospira (19.35%). To the best of our knowledge, this is also the first report to analyse the diversity of culturable bacteria with antifungal and antiaflatoxigenic activities in the South Atlantic Ocean from three perspectives: different media, different sampling stations, and different sampling depths.

Quantifying inter-regional payments for watershed services on the basis of green ecological spillover value in the Yellow River Basin, China

The inter-regional payments for watershed services (PWS) is an important policy to promote environmental cooperation in the river basin management. However, existing PWS in China may overestimate the value of watershed-related ecosystem services (WES) and induce a mismatch between ecological benefits and costs of stakeholders. A equitable framework of inter-regional PWS standards is necessary for the policymakers, especially in Yellow River Basin. For this reason, the focus of current article was emphasized on green ecological spillover value through multi-regional input–output model deducting suppliers’ own watershed services consumption, then explored the influencing factors of watershed-related ecological benefits, ecological profit or loss and spatial spillover conditions within Yellow River Basin, finally designed inter-regional PWS transfer standards. The estimated results revealed that watershed-related ecological benefits within Yellow River Basin had obvious heterogeneous characteristics and spatial spillover. The implementation of economic financial power, awareness of water resources ecological functions, and inter-regional PWS policies could significantly improve watershed-related ecological benefits, and the increase in water resources protection routine power led to the loss of watershed-related ecological benefits. Based on the green ecological spillover value, we comprehensively considered factors such as water resources protection routine power, economic financial power, and awareness of water resources ecological functions to design an inter-regional PWS transfer program, which was reasonable and feasible in theory and practice. For regional ecological and environmental cooperation, it is essential to strengthen spatial spillover and improve the level of inter-regional PWS, which may pave the way for other river basins or countries.

The spatial distribution of the woodland communities and their associated environmental drivers in the Golden Gate Highlands National Park, South Africa

The extreme variability in the topography, altitude and climatic conditions in the temperate Grassland Mountains of Southern Africa is associated with the complex mosaic of grassland communities with pockets of woodland patches. Understanding the relationships between plant communities and environmental parameters is essential in biodiversity conservation, especially for current and future climate change predictions. This article focused on the spatial distribution of woodland communities and their associated environmental drivers in the Golden Gate Highlands (GGHNP) National Park in South Africa. A generalized linear model (GLM) assuming a binomial distribution, was used to determine the optimal environmental variables influencing the spatial distribution of the woodland communities. The Coefficient of Variation (CV) was relatively higher for the topographic ruggedness index (68.78%), topographic roughness index (68.03), aspect (60.04%), coarse fragments (37.46%) and the topographic wetness index (31.33) whereas soil pH, bulk density, sandy and clay contents had relatively less variation (2.39%, 3.23%, 7.56% and 8.46% respectively). In determining the optimal number of environmental variables influencing the spatial distribution of woodland communities, roughness index, topographic wetness index, soil coarse fragments, soil organic carbon, soil cation exchange capacity and remote-sensing based vegetation condition index were significant (p 0.05) and positively correlated with the woodland communities. Soil nitrogen, clay content, soil pH, fire and elevation were also significant but negatively correlated with the woodland communities. The area under the curve (AUC) of the receiver operating characteristics (ROC) was 0.81. This was indicative of a Parsimonious Model with explanatory predictive power for determination of optimal environmental variables in vegetation ecology.Conservation implications: The isolated woodland communities are sources of floristic diversity and important biogeographical links between larger forest areas in the wider Drakensberg region. They provide suitable habitats for a larger number of forest species and harbour some of the endemic tree species of South Africa. They also provide watershed protection and other important ecosystem services. Understanding the drivers influencing the spatial distribution and persistence of these woodland communities is therefore key to conservation planning in the area.

Measuring the incremental impact of Payments for Watershed Services on water quality in a transboundary river basin in China

This study assesses the incremental impact of the first transboundary Payments for Watershed Services (PWS) scheme on water quality in China. Due to the absence of a control situation without the PWS scheme, the synthetic control method (SCM) is applied to construct a counterfactual for the prefecture city Huangshan in Eastern China where the PWS is implemented based on the socio-economic characteristics of more than 75 other prefecture cities. The creation of such a counterfactual is crucial in view of the declining trend in water pollution observed before implementation of the PWS scheme. Despite this downward trend in water pollution, an additional effect of the PWS scheme is observed. This result is not obtained when using any of the other prefecture cities as a placebo to test the robustness of this outcome. The application of the SCM in this study is a promising new avenue for the evaluation of PWS schemes elsewhere where similar control conditions are lacking. However, as we show, its applicability depends crucially on the availability of relevant water quality monitoring data.

Willingness to Pay for Watershed Improvement in Mekelle City Region: A Policy Implications of Payment for Ecosystem Services (PES schemes)

The purpose of this study was to model the willingness to pay for watershed ecosystem services improvement and analyze factors that affect households’ support decisions. The city of Mekelle is dependent on multiple ecosystem services beyond the city administrative boundary. The data was obtained from a field data among 384 respondents and expert focus group discussion were used as data sources. The house hold survey was analyzed using econometric model and descriptive stastics by utilizing STATA MP v.14.The data revealed that as per the scenario presented the majority of the respondents 352 (91.7%) were willing to support watershed ecosystem services improvement through regular financial fund while 32(8.3%) are not willing to support. The mean WTP is 65.18 Ethiopian birr monthly payment as additional to the current monthly fee of environmental services. Respondents’ willingness to pay was influenced by bid amount, membership in environmental organization, long stay in the city, house ownership and awareness on the concept of watershed. Respondents were willing to pay because they wanted a sustainable ecosystem services supply for the present and future generations. A payment scheme is possible and it could provide a sustainable flow of fund, however, the willingness percentages still needed to be increased. Community education and public awareness is necessary to enhance knowledge and understand about the importance and values of watersheds. The findings from this study provide noteworthy evidences for further research and baseline information for local government in the development of more operative and all-inclusive approaches for improving watershed ecosystem services. Keywords : Econometric model, Payment for ecosystem services, Watershed ecosystem Services, Willingness to Pay DOI: 10.7176/JESD/12-5-03 Publication date: March 31 st 2021

Can Payments for Watershed Services Help Advance Restoration of Longleaf Pine? A Critically Engaged Research Approach

Private forests in the southeastern US are critical for providing a variety of ecosystem services, including timber production and water resource protection. Restoration of longleaf pine (LLP) forests and savannas tends to enhance some ecosystem services, including water supply, over timber production. A variety of payments for watershed services (PWS) strategies have emerged to address the market failure associated with private forests and public water supply. The nature of these programs suggests that biodiversity protection may be a positive externality, or third-party benefit, to water resource protection. This paper uses a critically engaged research approach and expert interviews to investigate how PWS programs may help prevent land use change and promote LLP restoration. We also offer recommendations on how to sustain emerging efforts to implement PWS strategies while including LLP restoration objectives.

Program Outcomes of Payments for Watershed Services in Brazilian Atlantic Forest: How to Evaluate to Improve Decision-Making and the Socio-Environmental Benefits

In 2014, the Paraíba do Sul River Basin Integration Committee (CEIVAP) established its Pilot Program of Payments for Ecosystem Services (PES), focusing on water resources. The projects from this program share the same goal: to disseminate the use of PES as a tool for land management in watersheds. Contemplating 11 municipalities, including 84 landowners, conserving 718.63 ha and restoring 188.58 ha, this program was concluded in April 2020. Reviewing its historical and contextualizing features, we have observed that the outcomes from this program extend beyond these numbers. Here, we propose an evaluation methodology comparing the efficiency, performance, and impact of the PES projects. Based on new indicators that are easy to measure, we have identified key elements that have asymmetrically affected the projects. The complexity of the project scope and the execution of high-cost, and risky interventions on rural properties, have resulted in expensive projects with little tangible outputs. Our results support the upgrade of public policy for investment in ecosystem services by CEIVAP in the Paraíba do Sul watershed. In addition, our results can be more successful by improving the decision-making processes for similar projects in other watersheds.

Sustainable provision of raw water based on the management of ecosystem services in small watersheds

The differentiated effects of the provision of environmental services in a watershed are due to the capacity of regularization of outflows in its mouth. In impacted areas, this environmental function is affected, and in some situations, it ceases to exist completely. This study characterized the soil and the production of sediments in anthropic watersheds, with the purpose of describing and evaluating the environmental services offered by a watershed undergoing anthropic transformation. The analyses show that the water flow in the remaining watersheds was preferably horizontal in the transmission zone, and these areas represent almost all areas. The values of hydraulic conductivity suggest that the infiltration decreases with soil depth; this fact is corroborated by the values of bulk density. The natural regions of water accumulation, the floodplains or outcrops zones, are small and do not have direct contact with the main floodplain present in the Guandu River Basin, making it impossible to recharge through other areas. Even so, water balance shows that the set of measures implemented ensured that the deficit water demand was supplied during the years of operation, even in times of water deficit. Likewise, the retention of solids in the settling tanks and in the drainage system prevented some 29,000 t of sediment from being carried between the years of 2012 and 2015.

Changes in Brazil’s Forest Code can erode the potential of riparian buffers to supply watershed services

In Brazil, the Forest Code requires landholders to maintain fixed-width buffers of native vegetation along watercourses – legally called Areas of Permanent Preservation (APPs). In 2012, agricultural activities started to be partially allowed in APPs, but only if best management practices on soil and water conservation are adopted and if a narrow buffer strip with native vegetation is restored adjacently to the watercourse. In this paper, we present a modeling framework to investigate the capacity of legal compliant APPs to supply watershed services (erosion control and stream bank stabilization) in a 2,200 ha watershed in São Paulo State, Brazil. Our results suggest that the narrower the riparian buffer the lower the control of soil erosion dynamic within APPs, and that riparian buffers smaller than 8 m can act as a source of sediments to streams. The adoption of best management practices can contribute to controlling soil erosion within APPs but the presence of native forests in the first 15 m is necessary to guarantee equivalent protection to streams when compared to APPs completely covered by forests. Moreover, we observed that forest restoration within APPs helped to reduce the average soil loss of the watershed by only 20 %, compared to a reduction of 55 % when best practices are implemented in all watershed agricultural areas. We conclude that (i) the reduced requirements for APP restoration may contribute to stream sedimentation, which will likely affect the supply of watershed services by stream ecosystems; (ii) the implementation of best management practices in APPs will not have the same effect as native forests to reduce stream sedimentation; and (iii) the adoption of best management practices in all agricultural production areas – and not only within APPs as required by law – is the best strategy to promote the supply of watershed services to society.

Evaluating how we evaluate success: Monitoring, evaluation and adaptive management in Payments for Watershed Services programs

Payments for Watershed Services (PWS) programs have become an increasingly popular policy mechanism both in the U.S. and abroad. These programs are used to meet a variety of objectives, including improving the quality and quantity of water supplies, protecting endangered species, and advancing rural livelihoods. Monitoring, evaluation and adaptive management are important for filling fundamental knowledge gaps and improving the efficacy of PWS on the ground. However, relatively little work has evaluated how programs themselves monitor and evaluate their impacts and whether adaptive management is utilized. Here, we seek to improve understanding of the factors that contribute to the adoption of monitoring, evaluation and adaptive management practices through a literature review and a survey of PWS programs. Based on qualitative and logistic regression analyses, financial, technical and institutional capacity and leveraging broad stakeholder coalitions emerged as important factors contributing to systematic PWS monitoring, evaluation and adaptive management. This research underscores the importance of investing additional resources to support such capacity and coalition- building in PWS to ensure programs can meet their desired objectives.