Watershed Ecosystem Services Research Articles

Evaluation and Optimization of Landscape Spatial Patterns and Ecosystem Services in the Northern Agro-Pastoral Ecotone, China

The alteration of landscape spatial patterns (LSPs) and ecosystem services (ESs) in watersheds can have detrimental effects on the local environment and community. However, a comprehensive understanding of the current state of LSPs and ESs in watersheds around Winter Olympic venues in China is limited. Here, we assessed current LSPs and ESs and developed optimization strategies for the Xigou watershed around Winter Olympic venues in the northern agro-pastoral ecotone of China. The results indicated that the main land use type was grassland in the Xigou watershed, and landscape types were relatively homogenous. All three ESs (water yield, sediment retention, and carbon storage) generally improved from 2004 to 2020. For ESs, there was the lowest total volume of water yield in 2004 (637.44 × 104 m3). But sediment retention (10.54 × 106 t, 18.13 × 106 t, 13.28 × 106 t, and 16.85 × 106 t) had an upward, then downward, then upward trend before and after ERP. Carbon storage grew steadily. Correlation analysis suggested that the three ESs were closely related to the landscape spatial indices of average patch area (AREA_MN), contagion index (CONTAG), and Shannon’s evenness index (SHEI). AREA_MN, CONTAG, and SHEI in the eastern part of the study area promoted sediment retention and carbon storage, while in the southwestern part of the study area, they inhibited water yield and sediment retention. The results suggest that improving sediment retention by optimizing land use and cover change (LUCC) and LSPs is the main approach to further enhance ESs in the study area. Our study suggests that the inclusion of multiple landscape pattern indices can provide a more comprehensive representation of regional ecosystem service.

A framework for validating watershed ecosystem service models in the United States using long-term water quality data: Applications with the InVEST Nutrient Delivery (NDR) model in Puerto Rico

Modeling of watershed Ecosystem Services (ES) processes has increased greatly in recent years, potentially improving environmental management and decision-making by describing the value of nature. ES models may be sensitive to different conditions and, therefore, should ideally be validated against observed data for their use as a decision-support instrument. However, outcomes from such ES modeling are barely validated, making it difficult to assess uncertainties associated with the modeling and justify their actual usefulness to develop generalizable management recommendations. This study proposes a framework for the systematic validation of one of such tools, the InVEST Nutrient Delivery Model (NDR) for nutrient retention estimates. The framework is divided into three stages: 1) running the NDR model inputs, processes, and outputs; 2) building a long-term reference dataset from open access water quality observations; and 3) using the reference data for model calibration and validation. We applied this framework to twenty watersheds in the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico, where data availability resembles thar of watersheds across the United States. Long-term water quality data from monitoring stations facilitated model calibration and validation. Our framework provided a reproducible method to linking the vast monitoring network in the U.S. and its territories for evaluating the InVEST's NDR model performance. Beyond the framework development, this study found that the InVEST NDR model explained 62.7 % and 79.3 % of the variance in the total nitrogen and total phosphorus between 2000 and 2022, respectively, supporting the suitability of the model for watershed scale ecosystem services assessment. The findings can also serve as a reference to support the use of InVEST for other locations in the tropics without publically available monitoring data.

Ecological Function Zoning Framework for Small Watershed Ecosystem Services Based on Multivariate Analysis from a Scale Perspective

A thorough comprehension of distribution features of ecosystem services (ESs) and the influencing mechanisms can offer scientific guidance for the ecosystem management of small watersheds. We analyzed the spatial distribution patterns, interrelationships, and service hotspots of ESs across pixel and administrative scales using a multi-level statistical analysis approach in the Ashi River Basin. Through the quantitative calculation of the InVEST model, the findings revealed a decrease in soil retention, water yield, total nitrogen and phosphorus export, carbon storage, and habitat quality, while an increase in food production was observed during the period from 1995 to 2015. Through the geographical detector, the spatial heterogeneity of most individual ESs was influenced by land use patterns. Through redundancy analysis, terrain factors had the highest contribution rate to the integral ESs. Socio-economic factors and climate factors also drove the ESs’ amount and spatial distribution. At the pixel scale and administrative scale, there were distinctions in the correlations between all ESs, reflected by the fact that the relationships between ESs at the administrative scale were generally weaker and no more significant than at the pixel scale. Based on the number and distribution of hotspots in ESs and the clustering results of influencing factors, the framework of ecosystem zoning was constructed. This basin was divided into three ecological zones, and the management policies were formulated according to the ecological environment. This study clarifies the internal and mutual connection between ESs and influencing factors across two scales, thus contributing to the advancement of management strategies for ecological conservation and socio-economic development within the context of small watersheds.

The Impact of Projected Land Use Changes on the Availability of Ecosystem Services in the Upper Flint River Watershed, USA

The Impact of Projected Land Use Changes on the Availability of Ecosystem Services in the Upper Flint River Watershed, USA

How does payment for watershed ecosystem services alleviate farmer poverty in conservation intervention areas? Evidence from China.

Payment for watershed ecosystem services (PES) has been applied to water conservation and poverty reduction in an increasing number of developing countries. This study evaluates the effect of payment for watershed ecosystem services on farmers' income in conservation intervention areas using a difference-in-differences model and a panel dataset that covers 18 countries in the Xin'an River Basin in China for fourteen consecutive years (2006-2019). The results show that PES programs increase farmers' income and that the poverty reduction effect is sustainable. The PES programs mainly increase the farmers' income in conservation intervention areas through two paths: triggering the transfer of agricultural labor and promoting agricultural restructuring. PES programs are pro-poor and more conducive to increasing the income of farmers in upstream regions and counties with lower levels of economic development. This paper reveals the specific role played by PES in promoting rural poverty reduction in developing countries, providing insights into alleviating the contradiction between poverty and watershed ecosystem protection.

Integrating social-ecological system into watershed ecosystem services management: A case study of the Jialing River Basin, China

A severe decline in ecosystem services (ES) has accompanied the rapid development of human societies. There is a growing interest in considering ES management from a systemic and integrated perspective. Yet, researchers still need to explore effective ways to integrate human and natural systems for strengthening ES. This study proposes an integrating framework that connects the concept of social-ecological system (SES) with ES. We utilize land use types as indicators of basic SES structure and employ the InVEST model to evaluate typical ES in the Jialing River Basin (JRB). By analyzing spatial and temporal characteristics of SES and multiple typical ES, we investigate how ES is related to different SES types. The results reveal that: (1) from 1980 to 2020, the SES of the JRB underwent significant transformations, including a decrease in cropland areas, while construction land and forestland areas increased. Especially, construction land SES experienced an increase as high as 212.53%. (2) Regarding ES, water yield (WY) increased while soil conservation (SC), carbon storage (CS), and habitat quality (HQ) decreased. (3) The relationship analysis demonstrated disparities in levels of ES across various SES types. Construction land SES exhibited the highest average WY but lower SC, CS, and HQ values compared to forestland which had higher average SC, CS, and HQ instead. These findings imply that regional ES will be positively or negatively affected by transformation within SES. In the long run, it is crucial to synthesize both the characteristics of SES and functional benefits provided by ES in the JRB, then control the favorable transformations within SES to enhance a sustainable supply of ES. This study provides a novel methodology for connecting SES and ES comprehensively with new perspectives that will be beneficial for building regional SES management and ES enhancement.

Study on the Spatial–Temporal Variations and Driving Factors of Water Yield in the Yiluo River Basin

Water yield (WY) is an significant characteristic that reflects ecosystem services. In order to realize high-quality development, it is vital to explore the spatial and temporal (ST) distribution of WY and its driving factors in the Yiluo River Basin (YLRB) to uphold ecological stability and advance long-term sustainable growth. This paper quantifies WY in the YLRB from 2010 to 2020 using the WY model in the InVEST toolkit. Exploring ST characteristics and driving factors at both the raster and sub-watershed levels, results indicate that the overall WY (average water depth) of the YLRB in 2010, 2015, and 2020 was 26.93 × 108 m3 (136.50 mm), 22.86 × 108 m3 (113.38 mm), and 26.81 × 108 m3 (137.61 mm), respectively. The spatial pattern of watershed WY remains consistent across various periods, illustrating spatial variation in the depth of low WY in the central and western regions and high WY depth in the eastern region. At the sub-watershed level, the Luo River (LR) Basin has the highest contribution (69%) to the WY of the entire basin and served as the principal WY region of the YLRB. Conversely, the Yiluo River section, formed after the confluence of the Yi River (YR) and the LR, has the lowest WY contribution (7%) in the entire watershed. Distinct variations exist in the WY capacity among various land use (LU) types. Construction land (CSL) and unused land (UL) exhibited the highest WY capacity (315.16 mm and 241.47 mm), whereas water area (WA) had the lowest (0.01 mm). WY was significantly positively correlated with slope, precipitation, actual evapotranspiration, percentage of cultivated land, and NDVI. It showed a significant negative correlation with altitude, WA, and population density. This study helps promote the research and development of watershed ecosystem services. It also provides scientific support resolving conflicts between watershed protection and economic development and promoting harmony in the YLRB.

Drivers and impacts of land use and land cover changes on ecosystem services provided by the watersheds in the Philippines: a systematic literature review

This study investigates the drivers and impacts of land use and land cover (LULC) changes on ecosystem services provided by the Philippine watersheds, aiming to enhance understanding of sustainable watershed management and land use planning in the country. A systematic literature review assessed LULC change studies from 2013 to 2022. Notably, among the category of ecosystem services, regulating services such as hydrologic regulation and soil erosion control received significant attention, while provisioning services, supporting services and cultural services received comparatively less attention. However, in general, considering the trend of watershed degradation in the country, the studies conducted linking the impacts of land use and land cover change on watershed ecosystem services are relatively few. Also, the impacts of land use and land cover change on watershed ecosystem services were not elaborately explored and mostly centered on either a single or selected ecosystem services. This suggests that a more holistic approach in assessing the impacts of land use and land cover change on the watershed ecosystem services can be considered for future studies. The primary drivers of LULC change were agricultural expansion, urbanization and human settlements, population factors, forest conversion, agricultural demand and profit motives. Among these, urbanization and human settlements were most frequently mentioned. The main impacts of LULC changes on watershed ecosystem services were associated with hydrologic processes. These findings have implications for future research, land use planning, and decision-making processes, aiming to advance sustainable watershed management and preserve ecosystem services.

Asymmetric response of vegetation GPP to impervious surface expansion: Case studies in the Yellow and Yangtze River Basins

Terrestrial gross primary production (GPP) changes due to impervious surfaces significantly impact ecosystem services in watersheds. Understanding the asymmetric response of vegetation GPP to impervious surface expansion is essential for regional development planning and ecosystem management. However, the asymmetric response of vegetation GPP to the impacts of impervious surface expansion is unknown in different watersheds. This paper selected the Yellow River and Yangtze River basins as case studies. We characterized the overall change in GPP based on changes in impervious surface ratio (ISR), determined impervious surface expansion's direct and indirect impacts on GPP in the two watersheds, and further analyzed the asymmetric response of the compensatory effects of indirect influences on the impervious surface expansion in different watersheds. The results showed that: (1) The vegetation GPP decreased with increasing ISR in the Yangtze River Basin, while that in the Yellow River Basin first increased and then reduced. (2) The direct impacts of increased ISR reduced vegetation GPP, while the indirect impacts both had a growth-compensating effect. Growth compensation stabilized at approximately 0.40 and 0.30 in the Yellow and Yangtze River Basins. (3) When the ISR was 0.34–0.56, the growth compensation could offset the reduction of GPP due to direct impact and ensure that the background vegetation GPP was not damaged in the Yellow River Basin. In contrast, the background vegetation GPP was inevitably impaired with increased ISR in the Yangtze River Basin. Therefore, this study suggests that the ISR should be ensured to be between 0.34 and 0.56 to maximize the impervious surface of the Yellow River Basin without compromising the background vegetation GPP. While pursuing impervious surface expansion in the Yangtze River Basin, other programs should be sought to compensate for the loss to GPP.

Grazing management impacts on ecosystem services under contrasting climatic conditions in Texas and North Dakota

Grazing management is an important factor affecting the delivery of ecosystem services at the watershed scale. Moreover, characterizing the impacts of climate variation on water resources is essential in managing rangelands. In this study, the effects of alternative grazing management scenarios on provisioning, regulating, and supporting services were assessed in two watersheds with contrasting climates; the Lower Prairie Dog Town Fork Red River (LPDTFR) Watershed in North Texas and the Apple Watershed in South Dakota. The impacts of heavy stocking continuous grazing, light stocking continuous grazing, Adaptive Multi-Paddock (AMP) grazing, and an ungrazed exclosure were compared using the Soil and Water Assessment Tool (SWAT) model. Our results indicate that the quantity of snow and timing of snow melt substantially influenced grazing management effects on ecosystem services in the Apple Watershed. In contrast, precipitation was the main factor influencing these effects in the LPDTFR Watershed because it highly affected the variation in water cycling, streamflow, sediment, and nutrient controls. Simulated results indicated that AMP grazing was the optimal grazing management approach for enhancing water conservation and ecosystem services in both watersheds regardless of climatic conditions. The Apple Watershed, which is a snow-dominated watershed, exhibited greater ecosystem service improvements under AMP grazing (50.6%, 58.7%, 74.4%, 61.5% and 72.6% reduction in surface runoff, streamflow, and sediment, total nitrogen (TN) and total phosphorus (TP) losses, respectively as compared to HC grazing) than the LPDTFR Watershed (46.0%, 22.8%, 34.1%, 18.9% and 38.4% reduction in surface runoff, streamflow, and sediment, TN and TP losses, respectively). Our results suggest that improved grazing management practices enhance ecosystem services and water catchment functions in rangeland-dominated areas, especially in colder climates.

Balancing crop security and sustainable cropland use: Policy lessons from the Watershed Ecosystem Service Payments in Xin’an River, China

This study investigates the impact of Payments for Watershed Ecosystem Services (PWS) on the sustainable utilisation of cropland and crop security in Huangshan City, which is the primary implementation area for the Payments for Xin’an River Watershed Ecosystem Services pilot in China. Using a two-stage analytical framework along with a quasi-natural experiment, the research examines the policy’s effectiveness in Huangshan City. In the initial stage, the directional distance function and global Malmquist-Luenberger index (DDF-GML) model are employed to calculate the agricultural green total factor productivity (AGTFP), representing sustainable management of cultivated land. Concurrently, the study constructs unobservable counterfactual paths using the synthetic control method (SCM) to evaluate impacts on land use practices. The findings show an increase in Huangshan City’s AGTFP from 1.118 in 2010 to 1.823 in 2020. Quantitative assessments indicate that the policy contributed to a 15.3% rise in AGTFP in the PWS cohort compared to the control group. Though initial decreases were detected during three pilot intervals, a consistent upward trajectory in AGTFP was identified, suggesting that PWS encourages crop stability and the sustainable development of arable land. Further support from permutation, regional, and temporal placebo examinations affirm these conclusions. This work implies that PWS may be extended to other agriculturally vulnerable regions to foster a balanced alignment between sustainable growth and the enhancement of crop security The assessment focuses on policy lessons that could inform broader sustainability strategies.

Research Progress on the Functions and Values of Watershed Ecosystem Services

As a region with strong interaction between natural processes and human activities, watershed has complex ecosystem structure and diverse service types, and has the closest relationship with human production and life. Firstly, the basic concept, function and value of watershed ecosystem services were reviewed, and it was found that the theory of ecosystem services was gradually enriched. Secondly, the current research on ecosystem services not only focuses on the composite research of multiple functions, but also focuses on the change of a single function and its affected mechanism. In addition, some new models based on geographic information technology (such as InVEST model, CASA model and RUSLE model) have been introduced into the evaluation methods of ecosystem service value except the equivalent factor method.

Psychological distance and physical distance induced residents' heterogeneous willingness to pay for transboundary watershed ecosystem services in the Wei River Basin, China.

Under the framework of payment for transboundary watershed ecosystem services (ESs), identifying midstream and downstream residents' preference and willingness to pay (WTP) for ESs provided by the upstream is crucial for sustainable watershed management. The residents' preferences and WTP are not evenly distributed within the watershed. This study uses a choice experiment assessing the spatial impact of physical distance (including residents' watershed location and distance to waterbody) and psychological distance on residents' preference and WTP for the Wei River Basin ESs. The results showed that midstream and downstream residents' preference and WTP for the ecological attributes have a significant distance-decay effect, either the physical distance to the upstream exit or physical and psychological distance to the waterbody. However, compared with the residents in the midstream, the residents downstream have a stronger preference and WTP for upstream ecological governance. Besides, the distance-decay effect differs between urban and rural residents. There is a psychological distance-decay effect in rural residents' preference for water quality and a physical distance-decay effect in their preference for water quantity, entertainment area, and cost; there is a physical distance decay effect in urban residents' preference for entertainment areas. The above differences lead to heterogeneity in WTP and total economic value (TEV) for ESs. When calculating the TEV of the transboundary watershed ES and charging the public, policymakers should consider the location of the residents, the physical and psychological distance to the water body, and the difference between urban and rural areas.

Attribution of upstream-downstream transitive natural and human imprint on watershed ecosystem services variations

Local and associated regional factors commonly drive changes in ecosystem services (ES). Yet, some current studies focus on considering local drivers based on statistical methods, which may ignore the impacts of drivers in associated regions such as upstream-downstream, and consequently lead to deviation in attribution analysis and management of variations in local ES. To overcome this challenge, this study proposes an attribution analysis method of changes in ecosystem services based on emergy and partial differentiation equation (PDE), and applies it at River Basin scale to quantitively measure cross-regional causation. Taking the Yellow River Basin (YRB), China, as a case, this study identifies and assesses the specific contribution of drivers to the variations in ES from 2000 to 2020. The results show that the ES in the entire YRB increased 30%, and the ES in the upper, middle and lower reaches increased 30%, 36% and 3% respectively. All the assessed ecosystem services increased in the past two decades, among which three services including air purification (182%), climate regulation (145%) and water purification (79%) have the largest increase ratio. Natural drivers R (such as evapotranspiration, precipitation, etc.), human drivers S (land use change), significance driver τ (the significance degree of human attention to ES improvement) commonly and disproportionately drive the ES dynamics. The contribution ratios of the three above drivers to the increase in ES are 0.7:8:1, 1:9:0.8, 0.2:7:1.6 and (−7):11:4 for the entire basin, the upper, middle and lower reaches respectively. The decrease in upstream water use results in midstream lake and wetland ES increase 1.44E+18 and 7.49E+17sej during 2000–2020, accounting for 55% and 97% of lake and wetland ES in 2020 respectively, which decrease the decline ratio of midstream lake and wetland ES caused by midstream local land use transfer from water bodies to built-up land or agricultural land. This is a significant method development of the proposed attribution method to quantitatively solving causation in upstream-midstream-downstream of a River Basin. Meanwhile, this study can provide guidance for collaborative and integrated management and conservation of ecosystem services in the upper, middle and lower reaches of watersheds or other related regions.

The need of ecohydrological research in tropical forests for healthy watersheds

Tropical forests play a critical role in providing clean water and maintaining healthy watersheds, yet they face numerous threats such as deforestation, land use change, and climate change. To address these challenges, there is a growing need for ecohydrological research that can inform land use planning and management strategies for healthy watersheds. Ecohydrology is an emerging science that seeks to understand the functional interactions between hydrology and biota. It quantifies and explains the relationships between hydrological processes and biotic dynamics as well as linkages among upland, riparian, and aquatic components on a watershed scale. However, most of the ecohydrological studies have been concentrated on temperate regions, and for tropical regions, such studies are lacking. This article argues that there is a high time to launch research for identifying critical ecohydrological functions and driving forces that regulate the quality and quantity of water, and their role in providing water-based ecosystem services in tropical watersheds. The article outlines the main challenges facing tropical forests and watersheds, and highlights the importance of interdisciplinary collaboration and long-term monitoring for effective ecohydrological research. It also provides examples of successful ecohydrological research projects in tropical forests, and discusses the potential benefits of investing in ecohydrological research for tropical forest conservation and watershed management. Overall, this article emphasizes the importance of ecohydrological research in tropical forests for healthy watersheds and calls for more attention and resources to be devoted to this field.

Spatiotemporal Changes in the Watershed Ecosystem Services Supply and Demand Relationships in the Eastern Margin of the Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau

Clarifying the spatiotemporal changes in the supply and demand relationship of ecosystem services (ESs) is essential for optimizing ESs management. However, several studies have reported the ESs supply and demand risk in complex mountainous areas. In this study, we quantitatively analyzed the spatiotemporal variation in ESs supply, demand, and their trade-off and synergy, including water yield, soil conservation, and food provision in the Bailongjiang watershed (BLJW) in western China. The results showed that the total supply and demand of water-yield and soil-conservation services rose with a surplus from 2002 to 2018, except for food provision. A high value characterizes the water-yield and soil-conservation supply in the south, but there are low values in the east BLJW. The spatial distribution of water and food supply–demand featured a high demand in the subareas with population aggregation. Soil-conservation demand is high in the northwest and south of Wudu. The dominant spatial matching type of supply and demand in water yield was a high supply with a low demand. Soil conservation was associated with a low supply and low demand, and food provision with a high supply and increased demand. A synergy existed between water yield and soil conservation. Trade-offs existed between water yield, food provision, and soil conservation. The spatial distribution of trade-off intensity showed distinctive patterns. The supply–demand ratio of WY and SC decreased with the increasing trade-off intensity. This study comprehensively considers ES and supply–demand conflicts, thus providing a new perspective and approach for enhancing ecosystem services and high-quality regional development.

Optimization of landscape pattern in China Luojiang Xiaoxi basin based on landscape ecological risk assessment

Multi-source ecological risks have induced many ecological pollution problems that cannot be ignored and seriously threaten regional ecological security. Constructing and optimizing the landscape pattern is beneficial to improve watershed ecosystem services. In this study, an innovative method is proposed to construct and optimize the landscape pattern, which takes Luojiang-Small Creek watershed as an example. 10-meter high-precision raster elements are selected as the basic unit for landscape ecological risk evaluation, and 20 evaluation factors are selected from three dimensions of “natural environment-human society-landscape pattern” to establish the evaluation index system. The spatial principal component-redundancy analysis (SPCA-RDA) was used to comprehensively evaluate the landscape ecological risk in 2019, and the minimum cumulative resistance model (MCR) and gravity model were used to optimize the landscape pattern of the watershed. The results show (1) Human social and landscape pattern factors have a more significant influence on the integrated ecological risk, while natural factors, except for soil type and vegetation cover, have a weaker influence on the integrated ecological risk. (2) The overall landscape ecological risk is low, and the area of the mild landscape ecological risk zone is 259.89 km2, accounting for 81.68 % of the study area. According to the MCR model and gravity model, forest land with an area larger than 1 km2 and water bodies and grassland with an area larger than 0.01 km2 were identified as ecological source sites. (3) 17 potential ecological corridors were constructed, including 4 road-type corridors, 9 green belt-type corridors and 4 river-type corridors, with a total length of 68.72 km, and 22 potential ecological nodes were identified, including 8 A-type ecological nodes and 14 B-type ecological nodes. A comprehensive three-dimensional spatial ecological network of “ecological nodes-ecological corridors-ecological zones” was constructed, and the optimization effect of the landscape pattern in the study area was evaluated, and it was found that the optimized landscape pattern had significantly improved in terms of connectivity. The results of the study provide ecological protection and planning guidance for future risk prevention and control and landscape pattern optimization of the area with watershed as a unit.

Evaluation and tradeoff‐synergy analysis of ecosystem services in Luanhe River Basin

AbstractThe evaluation of watershed ecosystem services and the research on their trade‐offs and synergies are of great significance for the rational formulation of environmental policies. Taking Luanhe River Basin as an example, based on InVEST and CASA models, the temporal and spatial distribution characteristics of the water yield, soil conservation and carbon sequestration in 1990, 2000, 2010 and 2015 were analysed, where correlation analysis was utilized to explore the tradeoff‐ synergy relationship among various ecosystem services. And by mapping the hotspots of the ecosystem services, the spatial differences of ecological environment conditions were revealed in Luanhe River Basin. The results show that (1) from 1990 to 2015, water yield and soil conservation declined in a fluctuating manner, and carbon sequestration first decreased, then increased. The three services all showed a pattern of increasing gradually from northwest to southeast in space. (2) The relationship between the ecosystem services showed that water yield and carbon sequestration were mainly in a trade‐off relationship, while water yield and soil conservation, soil conservation and carbon sequestration were mainly in synergistic relationships. In different regions, trade‐offs and synergies changed to different degrees, showing obvious spatial heterogeneity. (3) The southeastern part of the study area was the main hotspot for ecosystem service supply. From 1990 to 2015, the areas of non‐hotspots showed a decreasing trend. Ecosystem service hotspots have expanded, and overall ecological environment has improved significantly, but ecological environment has been degraded in some areas.

Models help set ecosystem service baselines for restoration assessment.

Coastal suburban watersheds are under heavy pressure from human activity. This pressure has yielded an extensive effort to protect, mitigate, and restore watershed ecosystem services. Assessment of restoration investments would be greatly improved by a standard approach for estimating change in ecosystem service production combined with a well-defined baseline for assessment of restoration effects. Here we take a model-based approach to both objectives by applying two established ecosystem service models in a representative coastal watershed. This watershed has undergone extensive suburbanization resulting in a loss of ecosystem services, which has resulted in heavy restoration investments. We used models to estimate loss of the ecosystem services; clean air, clean water, stable climate, and water storage resulting from suburbanization. We then applied these model-based estimates as a baseline for assessment of restoration focusing on the appropriate restoration scale and considering downstream watershed impacts. The results suggest that losses of ecosystem services, such as flood water storage, from suburbanization have been extensive since 2001, but a comparison of restoration value suggests that restoration has been effective in recouping ecosystem services in some but not all local regions suggesting there are trade-offs to be made in these efforts. These benefits were most evident for the services of clean water and water storage. Models can inform decisions by clarifying what has been lost and estimating what can be regained through restoration action. The former sets a baseline for the latter and allows for a functional equivalency approach to assessment.

Payments for Watershed Ecosystem Services in the Eyes of the Public, China

Recent decades have witnessed an increased development of schemes for payment for watershed ecosystem services (PWES). However, the public is usually excluded from PWES systems. Reliable and empirical research on PWES from the public perspective is scarce. Aiming to understand public perceptions, attitudes, participation, and responses to PWES, this paper investigated local residents living in the Yongding River watershed area through a face-to-face questionnaire survey. The results showed that the public had limited knowledge of PWES. The public was keen to be involved in PWES decision-making, but the current level of public participation was very low. Regarding willingness to pay (WTP) and willingness to accept (WTA), nearly 55% of the respondents supported paying the upstream residents for protecting the environment if they were beneficiaries in the downstream areas, while 85% of the respondents agreed to accept compensation if they were contributors to environmental improvement in the upstream areas. Although some of the respondents’ daily lives were affected by the watershed environment, they were reluctant to pay, reflecting a sign of “free-riding”. The regression analysis showed that public concerns, values, knowledge of PWES and the watershed environment, and demographic factors determined the WTP and WTA. The results of the contingent valuation method and opportunity costs method showed that the annual payment for headwater conservation areas (Huailai and Yanqing) ranged from CNY 245 to 718 million (USD 36 to 106 million). This study contributes to our limited knowledge and understanding of public sentiment and makes recommendations for improving public receptivity to PWES.