Water In Pakistan Research Articles

Water politics in Pakistan: the internal and external dynamics

ABSTRACT Pakistan, mostly an arid and semi-arid geographic area, paradoxically harbours significant surface and groundwater resources vital for its sustenance. The nation heavily relies on the intricate network of the Indus River system, one of the largest contiguous irrigation networks globally. Despite this, Pakistan faces mounting pressure on its water resources. Hence, this paper delves into the multifaceted factors influencing Pakistan's water availability, categorizing them into internal and external determinants. The internal factors pertain to elements within the nation's borders, while the external factors transcend its sovereign control. The research underscores the imperative for Pakistan to prioritize addressing internal factors that predominantly impact its water resources. Moreover, a growing realization suggests the need for Pakistan to steer away from securitizing water resources. Such an approach complicates fostering amicable relations with its upper riparian neighbours, crucial for collectively addressing challenges such as climate change. Striving for co-operation rather than confrontation is pivotal for navigating these shared challenges sustainably. Finally, the paper concludes that adopting a desecuritized approach towards water resources, coupled with a nuanced focus on internal factors, presents a promising strategy for mitigating water-related concerns in Pakistan.

Impact of Climate Change on Water in Pakistan

“The water issue is critically related to climate change. People say that carbon is the currency of climate change. Water is the teeth.” Jim Yong Kim, Former President, World Bank
 1. INTRODUCTION
 Water is the prime channel through which the impacts of climate change on the world’s ecosystems and livelihoods will be felt. Pakistan is already a water-stressed country, ranking 14 among the 17 ‘extremely high water risk’ countries. Climate change in the form of rising temperatures and extreme and less predictable weather patterns are projected to affect patterns of rainfall, snowmelt, river flows, groundwater and water quality in Pakistan. This can lead to an increase in both inter- and intra-country disputes over water sharing arrangements.
 Over the last two decades, Pakistan has been ranked among the top 10 most vulnerable countries of the world to climate change, with 10,000 fatalities due to climaterelated disasters and financial losses amounting to about $4 billion from 173 extreme weather events. The country is already facing climate-related threats to water resources as is evident from the change in monsoon patterns, receding glaciers, rising temperatures and recurrence of floods and droughts. The floods of 2010, 2011 and 2012 not only incurred human cost but also economic costs, resulting in economic growth on average at a rate of 2.9 percent instead of its potential rate of 6.5 percent. Prolonged droughts in Tharparkar in Sindh and Balochistan also caused loss to human life and livelihoods. Since mid of June 2022, Pakistan has been affected by worst floods caused by record monsoon rains and melting glaciers, costing the economy over US$30 billion. Over 33 million people have been affected out of total population of 222 million, and around 1,400 people have been killed. One-third of the country is under water, with over 80 districts (out of 160 districts) in the country having been officially notified as ‘calamity hit’ – 31 in Balochistan, 23 in Sindh, 17 in KP, 06 in GB and 03 in Punjab. The paper aims to address the impact of climate change on water systems and people.
 2. MAIN SOURCES OF WATER IN PAKISTAN
 With 2.8 percent of the global population, Pakistan accounts for 0.5 percent of global renewable water resources. In other words, with the fifth largest population in the world, Pakistan ranked 36 out of 184 countries in total renewable water resources compared to India’s rank at 8 th and Bangladesh’s at 12th in 2017.
 Pakistan is a ‘water scarce’ country with a per capita water availability of less than 1,000 cubic metres. In 1951, Pakistan had an abundance of water with 5,260 cubic metres per capita, however, the country became ‘water vulnerable’ in 1981 with less than 2,500 cubic metres of water availability per capita to ‘water stress’ in 1991 with less than 1,700 cubic metres of water (see figure 1). By 2025, Pakistan could face droughts as its per capita water availability is going to become ‘absolutely scarce’ with less than 500 cubic metres.
 Indus Basin accounts for 96 percent of total available freshwater resources in Pakistan and around 80 percent of the country’s freshwater originates from outside the country, making it extremely risky and vulnerable (see Table 1). Glacier melt, snow melt and rainfall runoff account for 10 percent, 55 percent and 35 percent of total water in the upper Indus respectively. Over 85 percent of total water in the Indus originates from the Upper Indus and is shared between Pakistan (53 percent of the total area of Indus), India (33.5 percent), China (6.7 percent) and Afghanistan (6.3 percent). Stream flow in the upper Indus basin is highly seasonal: approximately 80 percent of the volume of annual stream flow in the tributaries of the upper Indus basin occurs during the summer months of midJune to mid-September.

Climate Change Perspective in Pakistan

The study aims to assess historical climate variations and forecast future changes within various agro-climatic regions of Pakistan over the next half-century, employing both Regional and Global Climate Models. The primary objective is to evaluate the vulnerabilities specific to different regions and propose suitable coping mechanisms and adaptation strategies. An examination of historical climate data underscores the undeniable reality that climate change is an ongoing process in Pakistan. The rate and nature of these changes are expected to fluctuate across time and geographical regions, exerting profound effects on various aspects of society. In parallel with endeavors to curtail greenhouse gas emissions, preparing for and adapting to the consequences of a shifting climate is imperative. Comprehending the implications of climate change for Pakistan constitutes a vital initial step in this endeavor. Should future climate changes materialize to the extent projected by the majority of global climate models, it is anticipated that Pakistan's water resources will undergo substantial alterations. This, in turn, will have ripple effects on food production, public health, industrial processes, transportation systems, and the long-term sustainability of ecosystems. Particularly, regions in the southern part of the country, already grappling with resource stress, are poised to face exacerbated challenges due to supply or demand shifts driven by climate change. Historical records and projections from General Circulation Models and Regional Climate Models converge on the prediction that extreme climatic events, such as droughts and floods, will intensify in frequency and magnitude across different parts of Pakistan. These extreme events are expected to exert substantial pressure on existing infrastructure and institutional capacities, potentially precipitating significant economic, social, and environmental repercussions. Consequently, it is imperative to place specific emphasis on understanding, mitigating, and adapting to these extreme climatic events.

Freshwater competition among agricultural, industrial, and municipal sectors in a water-scarce country. Lessons of Pakistan's fifty-year development of freshwater consumption for other water-scarcecountries

Agriculture, industry and municipal water supply compete over scarce freshwater. This study calculated sectoral blue water footprints (WFs) in water scarce Pakistan between 1971 and 2020. Agriculture dominates blue WFs, industry contributed 0.5–1.4%, municipal WFs 0.5–1.7%. Manufacture (cloth and yarn) and electricity production (hydropower) dominated blue industrial WFs. Agricultural crop and livestock production tripled using the same amount of blue water, but industrial and municipal WFs increased with increasing production/population, the blue industrial WF by a factor of 3.3, municipal WFs by a factor of 3.6. Pakistan's water scarcity depends on environmental flow requirement (EFR) definitions. Volumetric government definitions generate low water scarcity allocating almost all water to society. Higher EFR's generate moderate to severe scarcity. Efficient agriculture leaves more water for industry and municipal supply, increasing crop output and decreasing sectoral competition. Policy might support improved water infrastructure. Pakistan's lessons are relevant for other water scarce countries.

Pakistan’s Water Security Issue & Impacts of Floods

Water security is a crucial issue for Pakistan due to its heavy dependence on agriculture and limited water resources. The country has been facing multiple challenges in managing its water resources, including population growth, climate change, and water pollution. Among these challenges, floods pose a significant threat to Pakistan's water security, as they not only cause significant damage to infrastructure but also have long-term impacts on water availability and quality. This paper examines the impacts of floods on Pakistan's water security and highlights the key factors that contribute to the country's vulnerability to flooding. The paper reviews the existing literature on Pakistan's water resources and flood management strategies and identifies gaps in knowledge and policy. It also analyzes the socioeconomic impacts of floods on the local communities and the wider economy, emphasizing the role of water security in achieving sustainable development.The findings of this study suggest that Pakistan needs to adopt a holistic approach to water management that takes into account the complex interplay of factors that affect water security. This approach should involve the development of sustainable water use practices, the promotion of water conservation, and the implementation of effective flood management strategies. The study concludes that addressing Pakistan's water security challenges requires a coordinated effort by the government, civil society, and private sector, and calls for the development of a national water policy that prioritizes water security and sustainability.

Net Gains from Conjunctive Use of Surface and Ground Water

Pakistan is fortunate enough because its soils, topography and climate are generally suitable for farming but its agriculture sector faces the problem of scarcity of the irrigation water. This paucity of irrigation supplies has forced the farmers to use the ground water to augment their surface supplies. The quality of ground water in Pakistan varies from fit for irrigation to moderately saline to sodic. Thus the tubewell owners in the marginal quality ground water areas are bound to use the tubewell water in conjunction with the surface water on their farms. Currently the farmers are using about 65.75 BCM of ground water in Pakistan [Halcrow (2002)]. The international literature is filled with the studies on conjunctive water management and its impact on crop productivity and related issues [Gangwar and Toorn (1987); Bredehoeft and Young (1983); Gorelick (1988); Lingen (1988); O’Mara (1988); Shah (1988); Brewer and Sharma (2000); Datta and Dayal (2000); Raju and Brewer (2000); Sakhtivadivel and Chawala (2002) and Chaudhary and Shah (2003)]. In Pakistan, the review of literature shows that all of the previous studies conducted in the arena of water management reported the management problems leading to the inefficiencies in irrigation application and reduction in crop productivity, [Kijne and Velde (1991); Mustafa (1991) and Siddiq (1994)]. Few of the studies took into consideration the impact of waterlogging and salinity on productivity at farm level [Meyer, et al. (1996); Prathaper, et al. (1997) and O’Connell and Khan (1999)]. None of these studies have taken into consideration the trade-offs between gross farm income, ground water and salinity at irrigation subdivision level.

Economic outlook of food crops in Pakistan: An empirical study

Agriculture is the backbone of Pakistan's economy, highly depends on food crops. There is a huge gap between the products purchased and the actual products, which suffer from inadequate technology, inadequate resource use, inappropriate use of water and land, and inappropriate pests management studies, it's not just negatively affects production but also reduces production. Most farmers use synthetic chemicals to control pests, but they are often used in vain. In order to illustrate the main gaps and actual results of the main upland crops. The study examines the link between food security and GDP growth in Pakistan, including wheat, rice, sugarcane and maize, and water availability in Pakistan from 1999 to 2018. Periodic data are collected from the Pakistan Economic Survey (various sources). Use conventional miniature methods and refine Dickey-Fuller (ADF) testing to analyze crop data, and use Johansen aggregation testing to interpret results. Our research found that wheat, rice, sugarcane, and maize yields were positively correlated with Pakistan's agricultural GDP, while water supply was negatively correlated with Pakistan's agricultural GDP without significant correlation. Water resources related to climate change and the context of climate change will have a devastating effect on Pakistan's water resources. Therefore, the study suggests that the Pakistani government should provide major agricultural inputs on subsidies formulate policies, and launch new funding programs to develop and improve water availability.

Irrigation efficiency and renewable energy powered desalination as key components of Pakistan's water management strategy

Pakistan is reported to be one of the top ten, most water stressed, countries in the world. In this research, the potential to use renewable energy-based seawater desalination and improved irrigation systems to overcome the water stress in Pakistan is evaluated. It was observed that increasing the country's overall irrigation efficiency to 90% by 2050, results in a 54% and 80% reduction in total water and desalination demand, respective to a business as usual scenario. In a moderate scenario, where the maximum increase in irrigation efficiency is 1% per year, the 2050 total water and desalination demand are reduced by 21% and 40% respectively. The projected desalination demand growth, across the three scenarios, can be powered solely by renewables by 2050, at an average cost of water production of 0.6 €/m3. This includes the cost of water transportation in Pakistan and is reported to be an attractive water cost for farmers. Solar photovoltaics and battery storage drive the low cost electricity generation production in Pakistan. Thus, the results show how Pakistan can use improved irrigation efficiency systems and the low cost renewable electricity to achieve water security for the country.

Water Crisis in Pakistan: Management and Remedial Measures

Water insecurity is defined as the lack of a reliable source of water, of appropriate quality and quantity to meet the needs of the local human population and environment. As economic development continues, water consumption increases - and thus this is becoming a long-term cause of water insecurity. Pakistan is already the third most water-stressed country in the world. Its per capita annual water availability is 1,017 cubic meters - perilously close to the scarcity threshold of 1,000 cubic meters. Back in 2009, Pakistan's water availability was about 1,500 cubic meter. Pakistan ranks nine in the list of top 10 countries with lowest access to clean water where 21 million of the total population of 207 million does not have access to clean water. We need efficient and integrated management of water in view of its increasing demands visa-vis depleting reserves. God has created this commodity according to the requirements of mankind. However without management, it is not sustainable.

IMPACT OF WATER SCARCITY ON ECONOMY AND WETLAND HABITAT WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO BALOCHISTAN

The world has moved on to realizing the importance of water, because scarcity of fresh water exists more or less every where in the world. With the economy largely dependent on irrigated agriculture, Pakistan's water needs for human consumption and industry are also putting ever increasing demands on the available water resources. The Balochistan province suffers from a water scarcity and the situation continues to deteriorate with each passing day, which is affecting economy as well as the biodiversity. Water has a critical role in the province's economy, and in Balochistan where water has always been a scarce commodity, the constant abuse of the natural resources since the last many decades is posing a challenge to environmentalists and planners to come up with appropriate short and long term strategies that should be followed to control the situation of scarcity of water and protect its already weak and fragile environment. This study was designed to ascertain a) how much water was available for the province; b) water deficiency; c) how this deficiency was affecting the economy and biodiversity of the province; and d) in the end, the suggestive measures to improve the water scarcity and to preserve the aquatic biodiversity of the province have been recommended to improve the economy of the province.

IMPACT OF WATER SCARCITY ON ECONOMY AND WETLAND HABITAT WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO BALOCHISTAN

The world has moved on to realizing the importance of water, because scarcity of fresh water exists more or less every where in the world. With the economy largely dependent on irrigated agriculture, Pakistan's water needs for human consumption and industry are also putting ever increasing demands on the available water resources. The Balochistan province suffers from a water scarcity and the situation continues to deteriorate with each passing day, which is affecting economy as well as the biodiversity. Water has a critical role in the province's economy, and in Balochistan where water has always been a scarce commodity, the constant abuse of the natural resources since the last many decades is posing a challenge to environmentalists and planners to come up with appropriate short and long term strategies that should be followed to control the situation of scarcity of water and protect its already weak and fragile environment. This study was designed to ascertain a) how much water was available for the province; b) water deficiency; c) how this deficiency was affecting the economy and biodiversity of the province; and d) in the end, the suggestive measures to improve the water scarcity and to preserve the aquatic biodiversity of the province have been recommended to improve the economy of the province.

Sustainability of water resources management in the Indus Basin under changing climatic and socio economic conditions

Abstract. Pakistan is highly dependent on water resources originating in the mountain sources of the upper Indus for irrigated agriculture which is the mainstay of its economy. Hence any change in available resources through climate change or socio-economic factors could have a serious impact on food security and the environment. In terms of both ratio of withdrawals to runoff and per-capita water availability, Pakistan's water resources are already highly stressed and will become increasingly so with projected population changes. Potential changes to supply through declining reservoir storage, the impact of waterlogging and salinity or over-abstraction of groundwater, or reallocations for environmental remediation of the Indus Delta or to meet domestic demands, will reduce water availability for irrigation. The impact of climate change on resources in the Upper Indus is considered in terms of three hydrological regimes – a nival regime dependent on melting of winter snow, a glacial regime, and a rainfall regime dependent on concurrent rainfall. On the basis of historic trends in climate, most notably the decline in summer temperatures, there is no strong evidence in favour of marked reductions in water resources from any of the three regimes. Evidence for changes in trans-Himalayan glacier mass balance is mixed. Sustainability of water resources appears more threatened by socio-economic changes than by climatic trends. Nevertheless, analysis and the understanding of the linkage of climate, glaciology and runoff is still far from complete; recent past climate experience may not provide a reliable guide to the future.

Water energy and economic analysis of wheat production under raised bed and conventional irrigation systems: A case study from a semi-arid area of Pakistan

The project's aim was to reduce Pakistan's water use and consequently its costs in semi-arid crop production system by increasing awareness, benchmarking water use and targeting practical solutions for optimising water use with raised bed irrigation system. The aim of this study was to compare water as well as energy used in wheat production on raised bed (RB) and conventional farming systems in Pakistan in terms of energy ratio, energy and water productivity and benefit/cost ratio of the two systems. The values of all energy inputs and output were converted to energy farm. Economic analysis was performed for each crop. The total energy requirement under RB farming on two understudy sites were 3653 kWh ha −1 and 4455 kWh ha −1, whereas 3910 kWh ha −1 and 4752 kWh ha −1 were consumed under conventional farming, i.e. 6% higher energy inputs were used on conventional farming than RB farming system. Average energy ratios of 6.3 and 4.6 were achieved under the RB and conventional farming systems, respectively. The main conclusion of the study is that in RB farming system, water, seed and fertilizer energies applied were properly utilized but in the conventional (basin) system some parts of the applied energies vanished due to many reasons.