Waterbird Breeding Research Articles

Breeding waterbird species as ecological indicators of shifts from turbid to clear water conditions in northwest European shallow eutrophic lakes

AbstractWe used biological and physical responses at 71 shallow waterbodies with contrasting nutrient levels undergoing recovery from eutrophication to predict potential changes in waterbird species abundance, an important component of lake ecosystems. These general predictions were tested using 28 years of breeding waterbird data from three Danish shallow eutrophic lakes, comparing species-specific responses to improved nutrient and water transparency in two lakes with a third where conditions remained constantly suitable for breeding waterbirds. We predicted positive responses to improved water quality from pursuit diving predators (three grebe species), a specialist zooplankton feeder (northern shoveler Anas clypeata) and waterbirds feeding on (common pochard Aythya ferina) or within (tufted duck A. fuligula) submerged macrophyte underwater canopies. These species were characterised by positive waterbird community composition changes (using Principal Components Analysis) associated with decreasing nutrient loading and increasing water transparency at two lakes, with no change in breeding waterbird community at the third. Secchi depth explained 73–95% of variance in both PC axes at both restored lakes, but not at the third, suggesting water transparency was the major factor driving waterbird community composition. These examples show predicting waterbird species-specific responses to management can usefully direct the use of breeding waterbirds as indicator species.

Assessment of Ground and Drone Surveys of Large Waterbird Breeding Rookeries: A Comparative Study

Assessing nesting metrics in large waterbird breeding rookeries is challenging due to their size and accessibility. Drones offer a promising solution, but their comparability with ground surveys remains debated. In our study, we directly compared ground and drone data collected simultaneously over the same breeding areas. Drones excel in accessing remote terrain, enhancing coverage, mapping colony extent and reducing sampling bias. However, flying at the low altitudes required to capture young chicks in nests within densely populated rookeries poses challenges, often requiring observer presence and diminishing the distance advantage. Drones enable rapid data collection and facilitate accurate ibis chick counts, particularly at the “runner” stage when chicks are very mobile, and our surveys found significant differences in the counts between drone and ground surveys at this nesting stage. Ground surveys, on the other hand, provide valuable contextual observations, including water variables and sensory cues concerning the health of the colony. Both methods offer unique insights, with drones providing high-resolution aerial data and ground surveys complementing with human observations. Integrating both methods is ideal for comprehensive waterbird monitoring and conservation.

Anthropogenic bottom-up and top-down impacts on boreal breeding waterbirds.

Wetland habitats are changing under multiple anthropogenic pressures. Nutrient leakage and pollution modify physico-chemical state of wetlands and affect the ecosystem through bottom-up processes, while alien predators affect the ecosystems in a top-down manner. Boreal wetlands are important breeding areas for several waterbird species, the abundances of which potentially reflect both bottom-up and top-down ecosystem processes. Here, we use long-term national monitoring data gathered from c. 130 waterbird breeding sites in Finland from the 1980s to the 2020s. We hypothesised that the physico-chemical state of the waters and increasing alien predator abundance both play a role in steering the waterbird population trends. We set out to test this hypothesis by relating population changes of 17 waterbird species to changes in water chemistry and to regional alien predator indices while allowing species-specific effects to vary with foraging niche (dabblers, invertivore divers, piscivorous divers, herbivores), nesting site, female mass and habitat (oligotrophic, eutrophic). We found niche and nesting site-specific, habitat-dependent changes in waterbird numbers. While the associations with higher phosphorus levels and browning water were in overall positive at the oligotrophic lakes, the numbers of invertivore and piscivore diving ducks were most strongly negatively associated with higher phosphorus levels and browning water at the eutrophic lakes. Furthermore, increased pH levels benefitted piscivores. Invertivore diving duck species nesting on the wetlands had declined most on sites with high alien predator indices. Large herbivorous species and species preferring oligotrophic lakes seem to be successful. We conclude that the large-scale breeding waterbird decline in Finland is closely connected to both bottom-up and top-down processes, where negative associations are emphasised especially at eutrophic lakes. Niche-, nest site- and habitat-specific management actions are required to conserve declining waterbird populations. Managing wetlands on catchments level together with alien predator control may provide important approaches to future wetland management.

Vegetation and inundation characteristics of waterbird breeding sites in the Murray–Darling Basin, Australia

Context The Murray–Darling Basin serves as a crucial habitat for aggregating waterbirds; however, decades of large-scale regulation of rivers and water resources have adversely affected waterbird breeding in the Basin. Aims To understand the characteristics of wetlands that attract and support aggregating waterbirds, focusing on identifying environmental conditions conducive to waterbird breeding. Methods In total, 52 wetland sites across the Murray–Darling Basin, with high waterbird abundances, were identified, of which 26 supported waterbird breeding. Classification models were developed using temporally static and dynamic environmental datasets to discern wetland characteristics associated with waterbird breeding. Key results Analyses showed that wetlands supporting waterbird breeding contained a maximum inundated area of ‘other shrublands’ exceeding 3.635 km2 and variation in normalised difference vegetation index, possibly reflective of a ‘boom and bust’ ecological response. Conclusions Understanding the habitat requirements of wetlands to prompt waterbird breeding is critical for effective environmental water management and conservation strategies. Implications Targeted wetland management and environmental water allocation to support waterbird breeding populations in the Murray–Darling Basin is essential for continued waterbird breeding. There is a need for continued research to refine management strategies and ensure the long-term sustainability of waterbird populations in the face of ongoing environmental challenges.

Exploring NAO influence on waterbirds abundance through hydrological changes in a Mediterranean coastal wetland

Predicting how waterbird populations may respond to climate change is a major challenge for conservation, which could be addressed by understanding the effects of large-scale climate oscillations, such as the North Atlantic Oscillation (NAO), on breeding population size. Here, we explore the relationship between the NAO position and the abundance of waterbird breeding pairs in a protected Mediterranean coastal wetland (Mouth of the Guadalhorce River, Málaga, southern Iberian Peninsula). We found a significant and negative relationship between the winter NAO index and the abundance of grebes (r=-0.72, N=15, p<0.01), rails (r=-0.74, N=15, p<0.01), diving ducks (r=-0.56, N=15, p<0.05) and dabbling ducks (r=-0.54, N=15, p<0.05). Our results suggest that this relation is mediated by the NAO indirect effects on wetland flooded surface via changes in winter precipitation and Mediterranean sea level. These results should be considered to design appropriate environmental management strategies devoted to preventing or mitigating potential deleterious effects of the NAO variability on Mediterranean wetlands ecosystems and preserving their valuable waterbird communities.

Prey availability and foraging activity by tundra-nesting sea ducks: Strong preference for specific wetland types.

Wetlands in Arctic tundra support abundant breeding waterbirds. Wetland types differing in area, depth, vegetation, and invertebrate biomass density may vary in importance to birds, and in vulnerability to climate change. We studied availability and use of different wetland types by prelaying females of four species of sea ducks (Mergini) breeding on the Arctic Coastal Plain of Alaska, USA: long-tailed ducks (Clangula hyemalis) and Steller's (Polysticta stelleri), spectacled (Somateria fischeri), and king eiders (Somateria spectabilis). All four species preferred shallow vegetated wetlands versus deeper lakes. The ducks spent almost all their active time feeding, but their occurrence in different wetland types was not affected by the relative biomass density of known prey or of all invertebrates that we sampled combined. Sea ducks strongly preferred wetlands dominated by emergent and submersed Arctophila fulva over those dominated by the sedge Carex aquatilis, despite the much greater number, total area, and invertebrate biomass density of Carex wetlands. The hens depend heavily on local invertebrate prey for protein to produce eggs; thus, their preference for Arctophila wetlands likely reflects greater accessibility of prey in the near-surface canopy and detritus of Arctophila. Such shallow wetlands decreased substantially in number (-17%) and area (-30%) over 62 years before 2013 and appear highly susceptible to further declines with climate warming. Impacts on sea ducks of climate-driven changes in availability of important wetland types will depend on their adaptability in exploiting alternative wetlands.

Climate change and coastal wetland salinization: Physiological and ecological consequences for Arctic waterfowl

Abstract Coastal wetland salinization related to warming climate has the potential to impact ecological systems globally. In Alaska, the Yukon‐Kuskokwim Delta (YKD) supports large concentrations of breeding water birds and is an ecologically important area for conservation of migratory bird biodiversity. On the YKD, the majority of waterfowl nest in low elevation coastal tundra where storm surges drive saline water into terrestrial wetland habitats. Because newly hatched water birds lack functional salt glands to process saline water, salinization may negatively impact their growth and survival. We investigated potential demographic impacts of wetland salinization by conducting controlled physiological experiments to determine consequences of saline water exposure to spectacled Somateria fischeri and Steller's eider Polysticta stelleri ducklings, and analysed habitat suitability based on experimentally defined tolerance thresholds and sampled wetland salinity levels. We found physiological and behavioural pathologies in <1 week old ducklings at exposure levels of 6 parts per thousand (ppt), and found some evidence of reduced growth in ducklings first exposed after 1 week of age. We conclude that the acute toxicity threshold for ducklings <1 week of age is ≤6 ppt. We found that the area of coastal tundra where wetland salinity exceeded 6 ppt varied considerably among years, suggesting that some portion of the breeding range is unsuitable for rearing ducklings in some years. However, we also found that most eiders in most years nested in areas with salinity at or exceeding the tolerance threshold for ducklings, suggesting that nesting eiders do not appear to avoid saline habitats. We suggest that localized fresh water refugia currently may allow resilience to salinization during the critical period. Understanding how species and habitats respond to climate driven changes is essential for predicting future patterns of distribution and abundance, and is necessary for making informed decisions about conservation priorities. Our study provides insights into the extent of wetland salinization in Alaska, mechanism of impact and current ecological consequences on avian communities depending on these habitats. With ongoing climate change, the probability of species crossing physiological tolerance thresholds of wetland salinity may change in the future. Read the free Plain Language Summary for this article on the Journal blog.

Drone monitoring improves nest detection of Squacco Herons Ardeola ralloides, but fails to assess its productivity

Abstract In the last decade, the use of drones has proven to be the major innovation for studying various aspects of waterbird breeding biology, overcoming the environmental obstacles inherent in monitoring their breeding sites. The Squacco Heron (Ardeola ralloides) represents an example of the aforementioned difficulties, since it nests in impenetrable reed beds and nearby bushes, trees and shrubs. The present work reports the results of drone assessment of nest counting and reproductive success of the Squacco Heron in a colony in the Po Delta (NE Italy). At the beginning of the breeding season, far more nests (46) were found using drones than by eye from the nearest embankment (12). After four weeks (estimated hatching period), only ten nests were relocated by drone, due to vegetation overgrowth. All relocated nests were placed directly either within reed beds or on lower branches of shrubs, but always without higher branches obstructing the view from above. Finally, in the fledging period, no nest was relocated on drone imagery, due to further vegetation growth. Only 27 juveniles were found by drone, mostly perching on the canopy, without any evidence of nest failure, suggesting a critical underestimation. In conclusion, drone use improves accuracy of counting nesting Squacco Herons, but fails to assess productivity.

Using drones and citizen science counts to track colonial waterbird breeding, an indicator for ecosystem health on the Chobe River, Botswana

Many of the world’s freshwater ecosystems are degrading with increasing water resource developments, necessitating identification of useful indicators that track large scale environmental change. We investigated the effectiveness of waterbird breeding at the Kasane breeding colony as a biotic indicator of ecosystem health related to river flow and flooding on the Chobe River in Botswana. We counted nests and birds in the breeding colony in 2018 and 2019 using drone surveys, and estimated three breeding success indices: reproductive success, nesting success and fledgling success. We estimated 4529 birds of six species (African darters Anhinga rufa, African openbills Anastomus lamelligerus, African spoonbills Platalea alba, reed cormorants Microcarbo africanus, white-breasted cormorants Phalocrocorax lucidus and yellow-billed storks Mycteria ibis) were present with 2861 nests in early August 2018; there were no nests counted in 2019. Reproductive success differed significantly among species, ranging from 81% of eggs fledged for yellow-billed storks to 47% for African openbills and was significantly related to Chobe River level. To explore historical waterbird presence in the colony, we also investigated relationships between citizen science waterbird counts of the six breeding species on the river (1993–2018), to intra and inter-annual variation in river flows, flooding and local rainfall. Waterbirds were significantly less abundant at times of higher inundation throughout the year, and inter-annual maximum species abundances, likely indicative of breeding, were positively related to Chobe River maximum levels, occurring when the annual maximum Chobe River level was > 4.33 m. This matched our data: breeding in 2018, when the river level reached 5.09 m, and no breeding in 2019, when the river level was 3.23 m. Breeding of colonial waterbirds can be a useful indicator for ecosystem health as it requires sufficient and varied food sources at large scales, often in response to extensive inundation. It can be tracked using drone surveys, a non-invasive and safe way of estimating reproductive success. The determination of historical and current relationships between waterbird breeding and river level and flow can be used to forecast effects of climate change and water resource development on aquatic ecosystems.

Rainfall driven and wild-bird mediated avian influenza virus outbreaks in Australian poultry

Globally, outbreaks of Avian Influenza Virus (AIV) in poultry continue to burden economies and endanger human, livestock and wildlife health. Wild waterbirds are often identified as possible sources for poultry infection. Therefore, it is important to understand the ecological and environmental factors that directly influence infection dynamics in wild birds, as these factors may thereby indirectly affect outbreaks in poultry. In Australia, where large parts of the country experience erratic rainfall patterns, intense rainfalls lead to wild waterfowl breeding events at temporary wetlands and increased proportions of immunologically naïve juvenile birds. It is hypothesized that after breeding, when the temporary wetlands dry, increasing densities of immunologically naïve waterbirds returning to permanent water bodies might strongly contribute to AIV prevalence in wild waterfowl in Australia. Since rainfall has been implicated as an important environmental driver in AIV dynamics in wild waterbirds in southeast Australia and wild waterbirds are identified globally to have a role in virus spillover into poultry, we hypothesise that rainfall events have an indirect effect on AIV outbreaks in poultry in southeast Australia. In this study we investigated this hypothesis by examining the correlation between the timing of AIV outbreaks in poultry in and near the Murray-Darling basin in relation to temporal patterns in regional rainfall since 1970. Our findings support our hypothesis and suggest that the risk of AIV outbreaks in poultry increases after a period of high rainfall, with peak AIV risk two years after the onset of the high-rainfall period. This is presumably triggered by increased rates of waterbird breeding and consequent higher proportions of immunologically naïve juvenile waterbirds entering the population directly after major rainfall events, which subsequently aggregate near permanent water bodies when the landscape dries out.

The Okavango Delta’s waterbirds – Trends and threatening processes

The Okavango Delta is renowned as an extraordinary ecosystem of high biodiversity, listed as both a Ramsar and World Heritage Site, with part protected in the Moremi Game Reserve. This extensive floodplain ecosystem has 444 recorded bird species, with just under a quarter of these waterbirds, including at least 16 breeding and 4 threatened (1 endangered, 3 vulnerable) species. Despite the global importance of this ecosystem, and its transboundary nature, there are surprisingly few long-term assessments of status of the ecosystem or waterbird communities, a key indicator of ecosystem health, with threats such as upstream water extraction, and climate change threatening its outstanding biodiversity. We compiled a comprehensive 53-year dataset comprised of citizen science and other datasets (1970–2019), on 36 waterbird species (Anhingidae, Ardeidae, Ciconiidae, Gruidae, Pelecanidae, Phalacrocoracidae, and Phoenicopteridae), including eight waterbird breeding colonies in the Okavango Delta. We investigated trends in waterbird biodiversity as well as responses to temperature, flow, flooding, and local rainfall. Waterbird breeding colonies were associated with relatively high areas of riparian woodland, and experienced moderate flooding frequencies (> 1 in 5 years). Total abundance of all 36 waterbird species was positively related to river flows. Despite increased citizen science effort over time, total abundance within the Okavango Delta significantly declined with declining average inundation. Four species led these declines (African darter Anhinga rufa, green-backed heron Butorides striata, slaty egret Egretta vinaceigula, squacco heron Ardeola ralloides) and one marabou stork Leptoptilos crumenifer, increasing (only sufficient data to analyse 15 species individually). Decreased inundation within the Delta and other internal factors (urbanisation, tourism, vegetation change) as well as external factors (habitat loss elsewhere) are likely driving these declines. Rigorous monitoring of waterbirds, including the eight breeding colonies across the Delta, is needed to explore these changes closely, providing baselines in the case of water resource developments on the rivers supplying the Okavango Delta. Long-term conservation of the magnificent Okavango Delta and its dependent biodiversity, including its waterbirds, is highly reliant on protection of river flows in three countries to ensure natural flooding regimes, alongside the conservation of neighbouring wetlands.

Close to the Madding Crowd: Waterbird Responses to Land Use Conversion in and Around a Mediterranean Urban Wetland

Investigating how Mediterranean wetlands respond to adjacent land use conversion, is an important first step in mitigating the impact of human encroachment and other environmental stressors. We monitored the composition and structure of waterbird assemblages, in a Mediterranean urban marsh, subjected to severe anthropogenic pressures. Remote sensing indicated that in the last two decades Boussedra Pond was subjected to landfill, resulting in a substantial reduction (~ 50 %) of the marsh, while due to a lack of urban planning urban built-up and agriculture areas expanded considerably in its surroundings. This precipitous reduction of the size of this urban pond threatens the diversity of its resident waterbirds which include the globally Endangered (EN) White-headed Duck Oxyura leucocephala, the Near-Threatened (NT) Ferruginous Duck Aythya nyroca, and many other staging and wintering migratory species. The long-term study suggested that breeding waterbirds species responded differentially to the loss and degradation of the marsh, as highlighted by the apparent resilience of the synanthropic Moorhen Gallinula chloropus and the disappearance of several breeding marsh specialists, such as the Little Bittern Ixobrychus minutus and the Western Marsh Harrier Circus aeruginosus. The study also points out the need for both a coordinated cross-sectorial land use planning and an immediate, affordable and sustainable wetland conservation action.

Extending temporal baseline increases understanding of biodiversity change in European boreal waterbird communities

Setting relevant temporal baselines is critical to understanding biodiversity change and the full impact of various pressures on biodiversity. Current knowledge of biodiversity change in European boreal waterbird communities is based on monitoring and other data from the last 35 years. However, the impact of the presumed main drivers of changes in these communities, i.e., eutrophication and alien predators, started decades before this. We used data of 35 breeding waterbird communities, representing both oligotrophic and eutrophic lakes, in southern Finland from 1951–1970 and 1996–2015 to study changes in biodiversity against a baseline from a period when the presumed main drivers were not yet fully effective. We found that species richness increased from 1951–1970 to 1996–2015 at oligotrophic lakes but not at eutrophic lakes; total abundance in turn increased at the former lake type but decreased at the latter. Breeding numbers of many historically abundant species declined at the eutrophic lakes to such a degree that the increases of other species were not sufficient to compensate for the declines. Population increases prevailed at the oligotrophic lakes and the slight declines of some previously less abundant species, were compensated for. The species level results revealed that local abundances of different species likely are affected by different drivers, suggesting that we need an autecological approach in the conservation management of boreal waterbird communities. Increased predation risk rather than eutrophication appeared to be the main biodiversity stressor in the waterbird communities studied.

Drone assessment of habitat selection and breeding success of Gull-billed Tern <em>Gelochelidon nilotica</em> nesting on low-accessibility sites: a case study

The use of drones in the study of waterbird breeding biology has received considerable attention in the last years, but very few studies were made along the Mediterranean. We studied habitat selection and breeding success of the Gull-billed Tern Gelochelidon nilotica in two colonies inside fish farms along the Italian Adriatic coastline, using a small, commercial drone. Both colonies were located on small islets surrounded by very shallow water and clayey bottoms, thus being difficult to access. Compared with availability, the Gull-billed Terns selected quadrats higher above the water level, with a higher vegetation cover, which lay farther from the water edge, contain less water, and which are more frequently located in the center of the islands. 147 of 178 clutches (mean clutch size ± SD: 2.61 ± 0.58) hatched 383 chicks (82.5%; 2.15 ± 1.09 chicks per nest), with large differences between the two colonies. Hatching success was 95.0% and 69.1%; the most common cause of egg loss was flooding (97.0%). Nest attendance could easily be ascertained by 30-m above ground level drone-derived imagery. The use of a drone allowed the study of some aspects of the breeding biology of the Gull Billed Tern in two breeding sites where the traditional field approach, i.e. researchers reaching the sites by boat, would have been very difficult, causing unavoidable and prolonged disturbance to the nesting adults.

Predictors of Gull-billed tern (Gelochelidon nilotica) nest survival in artificial coastal saltpans, Bohai Bay, China.

BackgroundCoastal saltpans are a common supratidal human-modified wetland habitat found within many coastal landscape mosaics. Commercial salt production and aquaculture practices often result in the creation of exposed coastal substrates that could provide suitable breeding habitat for waterbird populations; however, few studies have quantified waterbird breeding success in these artificial wetlands.MethodsHere we examine the nesting behavior of the Gull-billed tern (Gelochelidon nilotica) breeding in the Nanpu coastal saltpans of Bohai Bay, Yellow Sea, China over three consecutive nesting seasons (2017–2019) by using nest survival model in Program MARK.ResultsThe results revealed that nest survival of Gull-billed terns in coastal saltpans (0.697) was higher than previously published estimates from other regions, with an estimated daily survival rate (DSR) of 0.982 ± 0.001 (±95% CI). High nest survival was mainly attributed to low levels of human disturbances and low predation rates, while exposure to strong winds, flooding and silting were the main factors causing nest failure. Model-averaged estimates revealed that eggs laid in nests located on ‘habitat islands’ with feather or clam shell substrates were most likely to hatch. Initiation date, nest age, clutch size and quadratic effects of nearest-neighbor distance, nearest distance to road and nearest distance to water were all significant predictors of nest success, but the nest survival declined overall from 2017 to 2019 due to the degradation and loss of breeding habitat anthropogenically caused by rising water levels.DiscussionCoastal saltpans represent an alternative breeding habitat for the Gull-billed tern populations in Bohai Bay, but conservation management should prioritize flood prevention to improve the extent and quality of breeding habitat, concurrent with efforts to create further ‘habitat islands’ with suitable nesting substrate.

Ecology of Avian Settlements in Lake Tonga (Northern Algeria)

Lake Tonga is an integral reserve within the El-Kala National Park, Biosphere Reserve and Ramsar site. This study consists in determining the diversity and phenology status of waterbirds in this reserve over an entire annual cycle (2017–2018). The census was carried out from fixed observation points. Of the 35 species recorded, wintering birds dominate with 12 species (34 %), followed by breeding sedentary species with 11 species (32 %). The breeding water bird populations are dominated by the common coot Fulica atra, (with a maximum of 6,033 birds) followed by the Anatidae, Herons and Grebes. Lake Tonga is a breeding area for several avian species and a recruitment site for a multitude species bird during the wintering period. Three Anatidae nest at Lake Tonga: the white-headed duck Oxyura leucocephala, the ferruginous duck Aythya nyroca and the mallard Anas platyrhynchos.

Suitability of Wetlands for Migrating and Breeding Waterbirds in Illinois

Wetland-dependent bird populations may be limited by habitat in regions where wetland loss and degradation are pervasive, such as the midwestern United States. However, available spatial datasets, such as the National Wetlands Inventory (NWI), may overestimate habitat availability if total wetland area includes wetlands unsuitable for wetland-dependent species. During 2016–2017, we assessed proportional coverages of wetland vegetation and inundation depth typically associated with suitable waterbird habitat relative to the NWI. We also modeled these data as a function of local and landscape characteristics during spring, summer, and autumn for three guilds of wetland-dependent, migratory birds. Suitable waterbird habitat conditions based on actual wetland characteristics measured comprised a small portion of the NWI. Shallowly inundated (<45 cm) emergent, aquatic bed, and forested wetlands suitable for foraging dabbling ducks comprised 29% of NWI area in Illinois during spring migration. Inundated emergent vegetation (Typha spp.) for migrating and breeding secretive marsh birds comprised 5% of NWI polygons during summer. Mudflats for migrating shorebirds comprised 6% and 4% of NWI polygons in summer and autumn, respectively. Wetlands with greater vegetation complexity and connectivity to other wetland types had the greatest suitable area across bird guilds and periods. These findings will inform conservation planners estimating waterbird habitat area and generating model-based habitat objectives using the NWI.

Counting Mixed Breeding Aggregations of Animal Species Using Drones: Lessons from Waterbirds on Semi-Automation

Using drones to count wildlife saves time and resources and allows access to difficult or dangerous areas. We collected drone imagery of breeding waterbirds at colonies in the Okavango Delta (Botswana) and Lowbidgee floodplain (Australia). We developed a semi-automated counting method, using machine learning, and compared effectiveness of freeware and payware in identifying and counting waterbird species (targets) in the Okavango Delta. We tested transferability to the Australian breeding colony. Our detection accuracy (targets), between the training and test data, was 91% for the Okavango Delta colony and 98% for the Lowbidgee floodplain colony. These estimates were within 1–5%, whether using freeware or payware for the different colonies. Our semi-automated method was 26% quicker, including development, and 500% quicker without development, than manual counting. Drone data of waterbird colonies can be collected quickly, allowing later counting with minimal disturbance. Our semi-automated methods efficiently provided accurate estimates of nesting species of waterbirds, even with complex backgrounds. This could be used to track breeding waterbird populations around the world, indicators of river and wetland health, with general applicability for monitoring other taxa.

First observation of a Brolga Antigone rubicunda preying on eggs and of ‘water-kicking’ behaviour by Australasian Grebes Tachybaptus novaehollandiae as a nest-defence

We report a novel observation of Australian waterbird behaviour: a Brolga Antigone rubicunda preying on eggs of the Australasian Grebe Tachybaptus novaeholliandiae , the first record of birds’ eggs in the diet of a crane in Australia. We also report ‘water-kicking’ by the Australasian Grebe, the first record of this anti-predator behaviour in the species. Neither Brolga diet nor display behaviours of the Australasian Grebe have been systematically investigated, and we suggest avenues for further studies of egg predation and parental defence behaviours in waterbird breeding wetlands.

Alien predation in wetlands – the Raccoon Dog and water birds breeding success

Alien predators are known to potentially strongly affect their prey populations. We studied the impact of raccoon dogs (Nyctereutes procyonoides) on waterbird breeding success in eight semi-urban wetlands in Finland. We manipulated raccoon dog density in two wetlands by removing individuals (2002 protection year, 2003 and 2004 removal years). We additionally performed nest predation experiments. We monitored raccoon dog density, estimated hunting bag size and observed waterbird breeding success. Our hypothesis predicts that the omnivorous raccoon dog plays a role in waterbird breeding success by depredating nests. Our experiments shown that the raccoon dog hunting bag in eutrophic wetlands may be large, as we removed 8.6–20.0 animals per km2. Both our nest predation experiment and field data indicated that raccoon dogs affect the breeding success of waterbirds. We found a significant relationship between raccoon dog density index and predation rate of the artificial nests, but not between red fox (Vulpes vulpes) density and predation on artificial nests. We did not find an association between raccoon dog abundance and the breeding success of mallards (Anas platyrhynchos) and great crested grebes (Podiceps cristatus). However, our study shows that birds species with different breeding strategies – e.g. great crested grebe, mute swan (Cygnus olor), mallard, Eurasian wigeon (Mareca penelope), coot (Fulica atra), lapwing (Vanellus vanellus) and marsh harrier (Circus aeruginosus) – when considered together showed higher breeding success both in 2003 and 2004 when compared to breeding success before removal. There was, however, variation in how strongly the species responded to raccoon dog removal. Our results indicate that the removal of alien raccoon dogs can be an important tool in wetland management.&#x0D; Keywords: ducks, invasive species, lapwing, nest predation experiment, Nyctereutes procyonoides, predator removal