Piped Water Supply Systems Research Articles

Human Health Risk Assessment and Water Quality Index of piped water supply system in Gulshan-e-Iqbal Town, Karachi (A Preliminary Town level study).

In the present study, piped water samples from Gulshan-e-Iqbal Town, Karachi, were evaluated for their Health Risk Assessment (HRA) and Water Quality Index (WQI). For this, different physicochemical and microbiological parameters were analyzed, and the results were evaluated according to the guidelines established by the WHO (2011) and the National Standards for Drinking Water Quality (NSDWQ) (2008). With the exception of sulphate, all physicochemical parameters were well within the guideline values. The mean concentrations of the metals in the samples were in the following order: Ca2+ > Mg2+ > Zn > Fe > Pb > Ni > Cr > As. More than 70% of the samples tested for Total Coliform Count (TCC), Total Faecal Coliform Count (TFC), Total Feacal Streptococci (TFS), and Total Aerobic Count (TAC) were feacal contaminated. E. coli was also isolated in almost 84.61% of the tested piped water samples. Results from the WQI revealed that 95.6% of samples had good physico-chemical characteristics, and 26% of the piped water samples had good microbiological quality. The WQI readings of all the samples for metals showed that they were unfit for human consumption. The mean Chronic Daily Intake (CDI) and Hazard Quotient (HQ) values, respectively, were in the following order: Zn > Fe > Pb > Ni > Cr > As, and Pb > As > Ni > Cr > Zn > Fe. All HQ values for As and Pb were greater than 1, and 50% of piped water samples had an HQ value for Ni that was greater than 1, indicating that people may suffer serious health issues as a result. All of the piped water samples except the area of block 13 D (S-5), had HQ values of less than 1 in relation to iron, but Zn HQ values of less than 1 indicated only mild health problems. Discharge of untreated sewage and cross-contamination are all potential sources of contamination that could result in diseases that are harmful to the public's health. Water monitoring and management projects should be implemented in order to improve pipeline infrastructure and reduce sewage leakages.

Assessment of water quality in the piped water supply system by using Water Quality index method

Background Drinking water of the right and approved quality is a basic requirement for the development of any civilization. According to SDG 6 it is crucial to provide every citizen with equitable water quality and quantity. Methods The study area is the smart city of Bhubaneswar with 67 wards and three zones: the north zone, south-west zone, and south-east zone with around 12.4 lakh population. To maintain the water quality in the supply pipeline in this city, which is always assumed to be safe, it needs to be examined within certain time intervals to check the contamination. In this context, studies on water quality parameters in the supply pipeline network from different anticipated vulnerable areas have been collected for testing. In this context, water samples were collected from areas near industries, market complexes, educational institutions, and construction sites of each ward of Bhubaneswar. Nearly 10 water quality parameters were tested and analyzed using the weighted arithmetic water quality index method. This method takes input of all the parameters and provides the overall water quality index value, which classifies the water in different grades like excellent, good, poor, and very poor quality. Results According to the WHO (2011) guidelines, the study found that there is a deviation in the parameters like 10.78% in pH, 19.48% in dissolved oxygen, 43.88% in conductivity, and 22.95% in hardness from the standard limit, but the overall water quality index indicates the water is not in the poor and very poor range. Also, water quality index values identify that the water in the south-east zone is excellent compared to the north and south-west zones. The reason for the slight deterioration is due to the underground cable works, road works and also some areas where the old pipeline system is still existing due to personal encroachment of people as per Public health Engineering department.

Reactivation of public–private partnership (PPP) models for rural water supplies in Rwanda: strengthening operation and maintenance systems

ABSTRACT The responsibility for operation and maintenance (O&M) in rural piped water supply systems in Rwanda has been transferred from the community to private operators (POs) during 2004. However, water supply services were suspended in many cases because of a lack of proper rehabilitation and regular maintenance due to technical and institutional capacity gaps of POs and other key stakeholders. As countermeasures, this project used the following six approaches: elaborating the O&M framework including the adoption of a licensing system for POs, establishing a drinking water quality monitoring framework, developing stakeholder capacity, developing inventory data and facility mapping, strengthening data management systems, and installing the necessary equipment for water supply management. As a result, the annual downtime of water supply services in the model districts was reduced by 41%. The result was inferred to be mainly related to the establishment of a licensing system for POs, improved reporting mechanism and royalty payment strategy, dedicated bank accounts for water, and the development of an asset inventory. To reactivate the public–private partnership models, it was important to identify specific issues from the national guidelines and contents of the contract between asset owners and POs to activities in the field and to work on improving them realistically.

Chemical and Microbiological Quality of Municipal Supply Water in Dhaka South Area, Bangladesh

This project aimed to find out the microbiological quality of municipal supply water in Dhaka South area and if the current regime of microbiological quality testing can determine the risk to public health from supply water satisfactorily. Water samples were collected from six different points of the water distribution network of Dhaka’s south locality, starting from the source (Shitalakhyariver, Narayanganj) to Jagannath University, Dhaka. The dominant taxonomic units were isolated using standard culture techniques, followed by biochemical identification, VITEK2 identification, and biofilm-forming potential of each isolate individually and co-cultured with other isolates. Presumptive identification of isolates from the Shitalakhya River revealed the presence of Citrobacter sp., Alcaligenes sp., and Pseudomonas putida. The sample from Saydabad Water Treatment Plant yielded Vibrio mimicus, Pseudomonas fluorescence, and Alcalimonas. The major aerobic bacteria in the water specimen from the community overhead tank included S aureus, Bacillus cereus, Micrococcus sp., Enterococcus sp., Lactococcus sp. Tap water revealed the presence of Escherichia coli, Lactococcus, Enterobacter, Shigella, Klebsiella, Pseudomonas, and Staphylococcus aureus, as well as anaerobic bacteria. Biochemical tests and VITEK2 yielded different results. Potential biofilm formers such as Klebsiella, E. coli, Enterococcus, Aerococcus, Enterobacter, and Cronobacter indicated quality deterioration potential inside the piped water supply system. Alteration in the major taxonomic units throughout the municipal water distribution network and the presence of opportunistic pathogens and biofilm-formers indicate the necessity for an updated water treatment, quality control, and in-line maintenance system.

Assessing groundwater quality and its association with child undernutrition in India

Background and objectivesGroundwater contamination poses a significant health challenge in India, particularly impacting children. Despite its importance, limited research has explored the nexus between groundwater quality and child nutrition outcomes. This study addresses this gap, examining the association between groundwater quality and child undernutrition, offering pertinent insights for policymakers. Data and methodsThe study uses data from the fifth round of the National Family Health Survey (NFHS) and the Central Groundwater Board (CGWB) to analyze the association between groundwater quality and child nutritional status. The groundwater quality data were collected by nationwide monitoring stations programmed by CGWB, and the child undernutrition data were obtained from the NFHS-5, 2019–21. The analysis included descriptive and logistic regression model. The study also considers various demographic and socio-economic factors as potential moderators of the relationship between groundwater quality and child undernutrition. FindingsSignificant variation in groundwater quality was observed across India, with numerous regions displaying poor performance. Approximately 26.53 % of geographical areas were deemed unfit for consuming groundwater. Environmental factors such as high temperatures, low precipitation, and arid, alluvial, laterite-type soils are linked to poorer groundwater quality. Unfit-for-consumption groundwater quality increased the odds of undernutrition, revealing a 35 %, 38 %, and 11 % higher likelihood of stunting, underweight, and wasting in children, with higher pH, Magnesium, Sulphate, Nitrate, Total Dissolved Solids, and Arsenic, levels associated with increased odds of stunting, underweight, and wasting. Higher temperatures (>25 °C), high elevations (>1000 m), and proximity to cultivated or industrial areas all contribute to heightened risks of child undernutrition. Children consuming groundwater, lacking access to improved toilets, or living in rural areas are more likely to be undernourished, while females, higher-income households, and those consuming dairy, vegetables, and fruits daily exhibit lower odds of undernutrition. Policy implicationsPolicy implications highlight the urgent need for investment in piped water supply systems. Additionally, focused efforts are required to monitor and improve groundwater quality in regions with poor water quality. Policies should emphasize safe sanitation practices and enhance public awareness about the critical role of safe drinking water in improving child health.

Input allocative efficiencies for operation and maintenance of rural piped water supply systems in highland areas of Vietnam

Strengthening the functioning of existing rural piped water supply systems is a critical strategy for ensuring household water security, particularly in water-scarce contexts. Improving operation and maintenance (O&M) of the systems is an important area of focus, commonly plagued by poor reliability and functionality over time. From an economic perspective, there is an opportunity to optimise O&M input efficiencies as a foundation for improved management. This paper presented challenges and opportunities to optimise O&M input efficiencies based on an analysis of water supply systems in Vietnam’s highland areas characterised by mountainous terrain and water scarcity. The analysis focused on state-based agencies for O&M given their mandate for restoring the inefficient systems and identified input norms for guidance on how to optimise O&M activities. We applied an input-oriented data envelopment analysis (DEA) model under constant returns to scale assumption to estimate technical, economic and allocative efficiencies. The results identified efficiency levels of 90%, 30% and 33% respectively. The study suggests a 10% reduction in general input amounts and identified efficient input target values reveal potential reduction rates for technical labour (12%), electricity (12%), as well as the technical and economic norms of technical labour (0.86 person- day∙(100 m3)–1 water sold) and electricity (0.53 kWh∙m–3 water sold). The policy implications for O&M state-based agencies include the adoption of input-based contracting mechanisms, while the government is encouraged to approve water tariffs and provide compensation based on input items to promote water service supply as a public good in water- scarce and challenging areas.

Maximising efficient water capacity through reservoir configuration with a case study for Malang City of Indonesia

All forms of water supply systems had unique characteristics of idle capacity. However, achieving a sustainable water supply over the long term could not eliminate idle capacity. This paper discussed methods for providing efficient capacity without compromising long-term water requirements. The objective of efficient capacity was to reduce idle water capacity and water-carrying infrastructure. This study method reviews previous research results with an in-depth case of a piped water supply system in an urban area. The assessment method referred to the pattern of water demand by consumers. Fluctuations in water demand determined the dimensions of all water supply system components. The results of this study showed that water distribution determines the minimum idle capacity, which directs the need for priority areas for efficient capacity and opens reservoir placement options. Under these priority areas, a decentralised reservoir position resulted in an efficient system dimension. The closer the reservoir was to the consumer, the smaller the idle capacity, which was the contribution of the onsite reservoir. The critical implementation was based on the flexibility of the phasing of water supply and infrastructure. The flexibility addressed the use of flow rates for a certain period, diversification of water sources, and system configuration that determines the dimensions of the infrastructure and maximising utilisation.

Changes in water treatment, hygiene practices, household floors, and child health in times of Covid-19: A longitudinal cross-sectional survey in Surkhet District, Nepal.

Consistent and effective practice of water treatment, sanitation, and hygiene (WASH) behaviour is an indispensable requisite for realizing health improvements among children living in low-income areas with challenging hygienic conditions. Sustainably achieving such a behaviour change is challenging but more likely to be realized during epidemics, when health threats are high and the dissemination of information on preventative measures is intense. Our study conducted cross-sectional surveys in Surkhet District Nepal, before and during the Covid-19 pandemic to assess the impact of water safety interventions and hygiene training implemented before and during the pandemic on WASH conditions and practices and to assess the association of these changes with child health. Information on WASH infrastructure, WASH behaviour, nutrition, and child health, including on parasitic infections, was obtained before and during the Covid-19 pandemic in spring 2018 and spring 2021, from 589 children aged between 6 months and 10 years and their caregivers. Data was collected through quantitative, structured face-to-face interviews, observations, health examinations of children including anthropometric measurements, analysis of children's stool, and water quality analysis. The association of changes in WASH factors with changes in child health was analysed using multivariate generalized estimating equations for repeated measures. Water safety management was significantly improved by the introduction of chlorination to piped water supply systems, which served 40% of households. In addition, the percentage of households using a ceramic water filter increased from 12.2% to 34.8%. Large and significant changes were observed in handwashing behaviour (frequency, use of soap and washing at critical times) and infrastructure: 35% of households constructed a new handwashing station. Kitchen and household hygiene also improved. An additional 22% of households improved the cleanliness of the toilet. The number of houses with a cemented floor increased by 20%. WASH changes were significantly associated with improved child health: the chlorination of piped water supply reduced odds ratios for diarrhoea (OR=0.36, 95% CI=0.15-0.88, p=0.025), respiratory difficulties (OR=0.39, 95% CI=0.16-0.92, p=0.033), fever (OR=0.42, 95% CI=0.26-0.71, p=0.001) and cough (OR=0.58, 95% CI=0.36-0.93, p=0.024), and. The frequency of handwashing with soap was associated with significantly reduced odds ratios for infections with Giardia lamblia (OR=0.68, 95% CI=0.50-0.91, p=0.011), stunting and wasting (OR=0.75, 95% CI=0.66-0.92, p=0.003) and fever (OR=0.85, 95% CI=0.75-0.96, p=0.008),. The presence of a handwashing station at baseline was associated with significantly reduced odds ratios for respiratory difficulties (OR=0.45, 95% CI=0.26-0.78, p=0.004). The construction of a handwashing station between baseline and endline was significantly associated with reduced odds ratios for pale conjunctiva (OR=0.32, 95% CI=0.17-0.60, p<0.001), which is a clinical sign of iron deficiency and anaemia, respiratory difficulties (OR=0.39, 95% CI=0.17-0.89, p=0.026) and cough (OR=0.44, 95% CI=0.26-0.76, p=0.003). Using a clean container for the transport of drinking water was significantly associated with reduced odds ratios for infections with Giardia lamblia (OR=0.39, 95% CI=0.16-0.93, p=0.033) and diarrhoea (OR=0.48, 95% CI=0.24-0.96, p=0.038). Similarly, a cemented floor in the household was significantly associated with reduced odd ratios for diarrhoea (OR=0.38, 95% CI=0.16-0.87, p=0.022) and infections with Giardia lamblia (OR=0.44, 95% CI=0.19-1.02, p=0.056). WASH training and the promotion of preventative measures during the Covid-19 pandemic supported improved water safety management and hygiene behaviour, which resulted in a reduction in infectious diseases among children in the study area.

Wells and Boreholes: Resilient Water Provision in Nairobi

Abstract In most Global South cities, the majority of urban residents, especially those in informal settlements, continue to survive off the main infrastructural grid. In Nairobi for instance, over 60% of residents live in informal settlements, defined by widespread squalor and shortage of key infrastructures for everyday living. Despite their existence as unplanned, these informal settlements have witnessed some forms of innovation around alternative technologies for water provision. Through oral and archival sources, this article shows that although large infrastructural systems are critical to urban dwellers, Nairobi’s waterscape has always found its resilience in a quilted landscape of water supply technologies. As part of this quilt, boreholes and wells have long been essential, either as key solutions or as complements to the main supply system. The author explores the development of Nairobi’s centralised formal water supply system from 1899 to date locating inherently built vulnerabilities that are born out of the dependency on large infrastructural systems. He concludes that the centralised piped water supply system is critical hence vulnerable, and that urban resilience for both the poor and rich urban class, is built on alternatives that ensure multiplicity of access and usage.

Kvalitet vode za piće i sanitarni uslovi u malim sistemima za vodosnabdevanje sa cevima u ruralnim područjima u Srbiji - komparativna analiza između širih područja

Provision of water supply service, through small-scale water supply systems (SSWS), is faced with many challenges in the entire pan-European region. This was the first comprenhensive national study that assessed drinking water quality and sanitary conditions in Serbia. This national survey was undertaken in rural areas of the Republic of Serbia in 2016 and on the basis of the WHO rapid assessment methodology. For the purpose of this study, three Broad Areas (BA) covering 26 districts were created, based on geographical and socio-economic characteristics of the districts: Vojvodina with 7 districts as BA1, West Serbia, Šumadija and Belgrade with 9 districts as BA2 and South and East Serbia and Kosovska Mitrovica with 10 districts as BA3. A total of 1168 piped water supply systems were inspected, sampled and analysed for selected microbiological and physical-chemical parameters. This study summarized the differences in compliance rate for microbiological and each physical-chemical parameter and sanitary scores between Broad Areas. This comparative analysis of small piped drinking water supply systems showed notable, significant differences in drinking water quality and identified sanitary risks between the selected areas.

A Brief Data on Water Demand Assessment for Sustainable Potable Water Supply in Yergalem Tula Kebele, Ethiopia.

In spite of Ethiopia's abundant water resources, such as rainwater, groundwater, river, and lake, there has been an increase in the demand for potable water during the past decade. Since 1990, Ethiopia has only achieved 57 percent of the Millennium Development Goal target for access to safe drinking water. Inadequate access to clean potable water and sewerage services and lack of good hygiene practices have a negative impact on health and nutrition, such as diarrheal disease which is one of the leading causes of mortality among children under the age of five in Ethiopia. The objective of the present study is to assess the water demand in Yergalem Tula Kebele, which will be used in the sustainable potable water supply design for the city. The water demand analysis is based on a geometric method of population forecasting with an annual growth rate of 3%. The total water demand (domestic and nondomestic water demands) projection has also been made and the per capita water demand of 25 liters for a distance of 0.5 km from the water distribution point for rural piped water supply system is adopted, as per GTP-II minimum service level. The mode and level of services considered for community water supplies include public fountains and institutions (i.e., schools and health centers/posts) with stand water points.

Financial and operational sustainability of a gravity-fed rural piped water supply system in Malawi

Abstract In 2014, a gravity-fed rural piped water supply system (GFRPWSS) was constructed in the northern part of Malawi at a cost of $6.8 million (MK5 billion). The system was designed to serve 35,007 people by 2020 but at the time of the study, the ability of water users association (WUA) to operate and maintain the system as well as the financial sustainability (i.e. if the scheme could run without external support) were unclear. Financial records showed that the WUA collected only 26% of their expected payments in 2018. Over 94% of the WUA members lacked the necessary capacity to manage contracts and human resources and only 16% of the Community Water Point Committees were trained in relevant areas of management. Several key positions had been unfilled and the parts necessary for repairs were unavailable. This is one of the few ex-post evaluations of a GFRPWSS and highlights several key issues for those wishing to implement similar schemes. Findings showed that the water system only partially met the water requirements of the customers, that the WUA struggled technically and operationally to maintain the system and that at the time of the study, the system was financially unsustainable. Improved record-keeping and payment collection, especially if and when quantities are increased, would likely improve all dimensions of sustainability.

Mobile crowd participation to root small-scale piped water supply systems in India and Bangladesh

Abstract In the arsenic-contaminated Ganges-Brahmaputra-Meghna Delta in India and Bangladesh, small-scale piped water supply seems a promising way to provide safe drinking water to households in the region. The use of smartphone applications can support monitoring of the system and enhance local engagement and empowerment. In this paper the scope for mobile crowd participation as a research and monitoring tool for piped water supply systems in Bihar, India and in Khulna and Chittagong, Bangladesh is investigated. In these areas, the use of smartphones and internet access are growing rapidly and smartphone applications would enable real-time water quality monitoring, payment of water bills, awareness creation, and a dialogue between the end-user and the water supplier. To identify the relevance and acceptability of piped water supply and smartphone monitoring, four surveys with potential end-users were conducted. Based on these surveys we conclude that in the investigated areas there is a desire for piped water systems, that households already own smartphones with internet access, and that there is an interest in smartphone monitoring. The enabling environment to deploy mobile crowd participation for piped water system monitoring stimulates further research towards an investigation of potential functionalities and the actual development of such an application.

The Role of Sociocultural Beliefs in Sustainable Resource Management: A Case Study of Traditional Water Harvesting Systems in Kathmandu Valley, Nepal

This case study helps to develop a better overall understanding of the roles and need for managing traditional water management technologies and to focus greater attention towards preserving them. The unique traditional stone spouts of the Kathmandu Valley, Nepal, demonstrate human ingenuity in harnessing subsurface flows and are, as well, an example of outstanding social accomplishment in the form of communal collaboration. In addition, in places, some of these spouts are recognised as having significant heritage conservation value and thus contribute, via tourism, to the local and national economy. This study shows the current values of traditional spouts and their connection with social and cultural norms by comparing two spouts in peri-urban heritage areas of the Kathmandu Valley in Nepal. Ultimately, it shows that in the presence of an alternative modern piped water supply system, which is inherently unreliable at times, the absence of an appropriate property right system is leading to the ongoing decline in the state of these traditional spout systems.

逆止弁による管路系の水撃作用の解析 : 第1報-実験方法と各種逆止弁による水撃作用の検討

逆止弁による管路系の水撃作用の解析 : 第1報-実験方法と各種逆止弁による水撃作用の検討

逆止弁による管路系の水撃作用の解析 : 第2報-数値計算と実測による水撃作用の検討

逆止弁による管路系の水撃作用の解析 : 第2報-数値計算と実測による水撃作用の検討

建築給水管路系における水撃現象とその防止に関する研究 : 第2報-水撃作用の防止計画

建築給水管路系における水撃現象とその防止に関する研究 : 第2報-水撃作用の防止計画

A-14 空家住宅の給水管理に関する検討 : その3 給水管理診断プログラムの開発

A-14 空家住宅の給水管理に関する検討 : その3 給水管理診断プログラムの開発

Life cycle cost analysis of water supply infrastructure affected by low rainfall in Ethiopia

Abstract This paper challenges the assumption that low cost CAPEX (capital expenditure) water supply infrastructure provides reduced life cycle costs when compared with higher cost CAPEX investments. The assumption is applied through a comparison of 10 years of financial data (2006–2016) from point source water supplies (accompanied by Emergency Expenditure – EMMEX investments – emergency water trucking, treatment and distribution) and piped water supply systems in two districts of the Ethiopian Central Highland region of Amhara. This study concluded that on average point source water supplies accessing shallow groundwater were non-functional for an average of 60 months in a project period of 10 years. To supplement the water supply demand during the non-functionality period, emergency water trucking and treatment was provided over a 10 year period at a per capita cost of USD 2,257. In comparison, the per capita cost of piped water supplies was USD 65 for a project period of 20 years. The study concluded that piped water supplies are less expensive than point source supplies when CAPEX and emergency water supply provision costs are considered under a life cycle cost analysis.

The costs of delay in infrastructure investments: A comparison of 2001 and 2014 household water supply coping costs in the Kathmandu Valley, Nepal

AbstractIn 2001, we conducted a survey of 1500 randomly sampled households in Kathmandu to determine the costs people were incurring to cope with Kathmandu's poor quality, unreliable piped water supply system. From 2001 until 2014, there was little additional public investment in the municipal water supply system. In the summer of 2014, we attempted to reinterview all 1500 households in our 2001 sample to determine how they had managed to deal with the growing water shortage and the deteriorating condition of the piped water infrastructure in Kathmandu and to compare their coping costs in 2014 with those we first estimated in 2001. Average household coping costs more than doubled in real terms over the period from 2001 to 2014, from US$5 to US$12 per month (measured in 2014 prices). The composition of household coping costs changed from 2001 to 2014, as households responded to the deteriorating condition of the piped water infrastructure by drilling more private wells, purchasing water from both tanker truck and bottled water vendors, and installing more storage tanks. These investments and expenditures resulted in a decline in the time households spend collecting water from outside the home. Our analysis suggests that the significant increase in coping costs between 2001 and 2014 may provide an opportunity for the municipal water utility to substantially increase water tariffs if the quantity and quality of piped services can be improved. However, the capital investments made by some households in private wells, pumping and treatment systems, and storage tanks in response to the delay in infrastructure investment may lock them into current patterns of water use, at least in the short run, and thus make it difficult to predict how they would respond to tariff increases for improved piped water services.