Water Security Strategies Research Articles

Soil legacy nutrients contribute to the decreasing stoichiometric ratio of N and P loading from the Mississippi River Basin.

Human-induced nitrogen-phosphorus (N, P) imbalance in terrestrial ecosystems can lead to disproportionate N and P loading to aquatic ecosystems, subsequently shifting the elemental ratio in estuaries and coastal oceans and impacting both the structure and functioning of aquatic ecosystems. The N:P ratio of nutrient loading to the Gulf of Mexico from the Mississippi River Basin increased before the late 1980s driven by the enhanced usage of N fertilizer over P fertilizer, whereafter the N:P loading ratio started to decrease although the N:P ratio of fertilizer application did not exhibit a similar trend. Here, we hypothesize that different release rates of soil legacy nutrients might contribute to the decreasing N:P loading ratio. Our study used a data-model integration framework to evaluate N and P dynamics and the potential for long-term accumulation or release of internal soil nutrient legacy stores to alter the ratio of N and P transported down the rivers. We show that the longer residence time of P in terrestrial ecosystems results in a much slower release of P to coastal oceans than N. If contemporary nutrient sources were reduced or suspended, P loading sustained by soil legacy P would decrease much slower than that of N, causing a decrease in the N and P loading ratio. The longer residence time of P in terrestrial ecosystems and the increasingly important role of soil legacy nutrients as a loading source may explain the decreasing N:P loading ratio in the Mississippi River Basin. Our study underscores a promising prospect for N loading control and the urgency to integrate soil P legacy into sustainable nutrient management strategies for aquatic ecosystem health and water security.

Unpacking the urban virtual water of the Global South: Lessons from 181 cities

Most of the water humanity currently consumes is invisible, it is embedded within goods and services purchased by final consumers from the global economic market. Cities of the Global South (GS) – especially African and Asian cities are facing twofold water security problems. First, the increased risk of water availability (both quantity and quality), which is exacerbated by climate change. Second, the ever-increasing water demand due to their economic and population growth. Therefore, to help cities of the GS to efficiently manage their water resources, it is crucial to explore what products are being imported from the global economic market and assess their embodied water intensities. Herein, the water footprints (blue and grey) of 181 cities from the GS are computed using Extended Environmental Input-Output Analysis (EE-IOA). Results point out that water imports through virtual water are significant and growing even across the GS with different magnitudes because of the economic attributes of cities (expenditures patterns) and their geography (spatial location). The average blue virtual water is estimated to be 253 l per capita/yr and 285 l per capita/yr for virtual grey water. When decomposing the water footprint we found that the major responsible sectors are “Food” accounting for 37% of the total footprint, followed by “Transport” with 24%, and “Energy” with 22%. To put the climate impacts in perspective, cities of the GS must act in a proactive approach and use the water-trade nexus as a supplementary approach to shape and implement water security strategies.

An analysis of finding the best strategies of water security for water source areas using an integrated IT2FVIKOR with machine learning

Worldwide, water security is adversely affected by factors such as population growth, rural–urban migration, climate, hydrological conditions, over-abstraction of groundwater, and increased per-capita water use. Water security modeling is one of the key strategies to better manage water safety and develop appropriate policies to improve security. In view of the growing global demand for safe water, intelligent methods and algorithms must be developed. Therefore, this paper proposes an integrated interval type-2 Fuzzy VIseKriterijumska Optimizcija I Kompromisno Resenje (IT2FVIKOR) with unsupervised machine learning (ML). This includes IT2FVIKOR for ranking and selecting a set of alternatives. Unsupervised machine learning includes hierarchical clustering, self-organizing map, and autoencoder for clustering, silhouette analysis and elbow method to find the most optimal cluster count, and finally Adjusted Rank Index (ARI) to find the best comparison within two clusters. This proposed integrated method can be divided into a two-phase fuzzy-machine learning-based framework to select the best water security strategies and categorize the polluted area using the water datasets from the Terengganu River, one of Malaysia’s rivers. Phase 1 focuses on the IT2FVIKOR method to select five different strategies with five different criteria using five decision makers for finding the best water security strategies. Phase 2 continues the unsupervised machine learning where three different clustering algorithms, namely, hierarchical clustering, self-organizing map, and autoencoder, are used to cluster the polluted area in the Terengganu River. Silhouette analysis is applied along with the clustering algorithms to estimate the number of optimal clusters in a dataset. Then, the ARI is applied to find the best comparison within the original data with hierarchical clustering, self-organizing map, and autoencoder. Next, the elbow method is applied to double-confirm the best clusters for each clustering algorithm. Last, lists of polluted areas in each cluster are retrieved. Finally, this 2-phase fuzzy-Machine learning–based framework offers an alternative intelligent model to solve the water security problems and find the most polluted area.

URBAN WATER SECURITY INDEX ASSESSMENT FOR IBB CITY, YEMEN: COMPREHENSIVE VISION

Water security is a global concern due to climate change and the increasing impact of human activities on water resources. Several issues regarding water scarcity, safety, and administration have been raised in previous studies, which indicated several deficiencies in the sewage systems and water supply of Ibb city, Yemen. However, a comprehensive assessment of water security has not been carried out. Hence, this study aims to develop a framework for assessing the urban water of Ibb city. The study applies the new assessment framework and measures the urban water security index (UWSI) as a decision management tool by using the four dimensions of urban water security: drinking water, ecosystems, climate change and water-related hazards, and socio-economic aspects (DECS). The urban water security index (UWSI) assesses Ibb water security and intervention strategies. According to the study findings, urban water security in Ibb is insufficient to meet basic needs, with flaws in some aspects of the water security dimensions. The UWSI framework promotes rational and evidence-based decision-making, which is essential for improving water resource management in water-insecurity cities.

Designing an Alternate Water Security Strategy for Rural Communities in South Africa – Case Study of Limpopo and Mpumalanga Provinces

Short of affordable and clean potable water poses high risk to health of human beings globally. Water scarcity is a challenge that affects all countries across the globe and this is more prominently felt in rural communities of poorer countries. In recent years, South Africa has faced severe droughts limiting portable water supply to rural areas of the country. Developing an alternate water security strategy for rural communities in South Africa can assist local government to manage water systems successfully. This paper illustrates the process of building a water supply strategy using the case of water management in Limpopo and Mpumalanga provinces of South Africa. These provinces experience a high challenge of water supply and access due to lack of water services, and challenge of building stakeholder support for resource management strategies. A number of rural communities were visited, water samples collected from boreholes, rivers, dams and taps around the two provinces. From chemical and other test, we established the quantity and quality of water sources around the two provinces. System dynamics and system analysis approach are used in this paper to model the existing water resource management and map out its frailties and limitations. A model to connect a system of boreholes and nearby water sources was then developed. The results, it is observed that the reliability and improvement of water system for rural areas was achieved through these approaches. The results show enhanced abstraction of water from sources within the communities that can secure water in these rural communities.

Exploring the Sustainable Use Strategy of Scarce Water Resources for Rural Revitalization in Yanchi County from Arid Region of Northwest China

Water scarcity limits the coordination between economic development and ecological protection of arid regions. This study presented the consumption pattern and future challenges for water resources and proposed sustainable use strategies for water security in Yanchi county from the arid region of northwest China. Our results showed that water withdrawals were close to the total available water resources. Agriculture consumed about 84.72% of the total water supply. Agricultural water use was influenced by breeding stock, rural per capita net income and effective irrigation area. Estimation of agricultural water demand was about 6582.20 × 104 m3 under the rural revitalization scenario. Limited water supply and increased water demand pose challenges and impediments for rural revitalization and water security in Yanchi county. Water sustainable utilization can be achieved by increasing water supply from unconventional water resources and improving water use efficiency with governmental management. These findings may help policymakers to develop sustainable water use strategies during rural revitalization in arid regions.

Strategies for Water Security and Aquatic Ecosystem Restoration in the Yangtze River Economic Belt

Strategies for Water Security and Aquatic Ecosystem Restoration in the Yangtze River Economic Belt

How is water security conceptualized and practiced for rural livelihoods in the global South? A systematic scoping review

AbstractIn the global South, rural and resource-based livelihoods increasingly face water-related risks. The conceptualization and application of the water security concept in relation to rural livelihoods has not been reviewed in this context. To fill this gap, a systematic scoping review of refereed journal articles (2000–2019) was conducted to examine how water security is defined, driven, and addressed for rural livelihoods in the global South. Publications (n = 99) featured diverse methodologies and geographical contexts, and recognized simultaneous drivers of water insecurity and solution strategies for water security. Several shortcomings were evident. First, only 30.3% of publications defined the concept, mostly using frames of ‘adequate’, ‘sufficient’, and ‘acceptable’ water-related risks. Few definitions recognized the role of water security interventions in increasing capabilities and prosperity. Second, technical and managerial responses to proximate drivers of water-related risk – namely climate-related dynamics, water re-allocation, extraction, and mismanagement – outnumbered efforts to identify and transform the underlying social, economic, and political inequities that create and sustain water insecurity. Last, studies focused heavily on agriculture, while labour, transhumance pastoralism, and aquaculture were underrepresented. A research agenda that increases the synergies between the wider water security and rural livelihoods scholarship is advanced to address these shortcomings.

Urban water security in South Asia: Crucial policy lessons from the Nepalese town of Bidur

AbstractThe rapidly urbanizing and highly populated South Asian region is facing a water crisis. As a key response, large centralized water systems are being put in place, replacing small and community‐based systems. In this discussion note, we present the case of Nepal's town of Bidur to show that Himalayan South Asian towns cannot ensure water supply by neglecting community‐based and small‐scale water supply systems. Using insights from qualitative and quantitative data collected during 2014–2019, we argue that decentralized and community‐based urban water systems are more resilient than large ones during disasters. Our argument is based on the analysis of Bidur's response to the 2015 earthquake as well as the COVID‐19 pandemic. We show that a mixed approach of large and small water supply schemes provides a promising solution to water insecurity in the South Asian towns. This approach can be realized by promoting diversity of water management strategies and creating research‐informed planning and discussion forums at the community and municipality levels. We also recommend municipalities to formulate a comprehensive water security strategy, considering the current and future scenarios of water demand and supply.

Urban Household Water Insecurity from the Margins: Perspectives from Northeast Brazil

Urban water security strategies commonly pivot around supply-side initiatives to mitigate scarcity, forecasted population growth, or anticipated climate change; yet, scholars have begun to expand urban water security scholarship by including alternative frameworks that incorporate equity into the analysis. Our study seeks to contribute to this equity turn by opening the investigative aperture on urban water security research in several aspects. We address the question of water security for whom, and turn our attention to the urban resident and household. We shift empirical focus to smaller urban centers in the Global South, and we develop a new assessment tool for water insecurity, the Household Water Insecurity Index (HWISI), to assess differences across the urban waterscape. We conducted this research in Forquilha (Ceará, Brazil), which represents an overlooked class of small urban centers common across Brazil’s semiarid region. We draw on qualitative and quantitative data to describe household water insecurity using the HWISI. The prevalence of household water insecurity is variable, with a quarter of the population experiencing moderate to severe household water insecurity. In addition, analysis of the factors within the HWISI demonstrated how specific water insecurity domains push households across water insecurity thresholds.

Assessing Water Security in Water-Scarce Cities: Applying the Integrated Urban Water Security Index (IUWSI) in Madaba, Jordan

Water security is a major concern for water-scarce cities that face dynamic water challenges due to limited water supply, climate change and increasing water demand. Framing urban water security is challenging due to the complexity and uncertainties of the definitions and assessment frameworks concerning urban water security. Several studies have assessed water security by granting priority indicators equal weight without considering or adapting to the local conditions. This study develops a new urban water security assessment framework with application to the water-scarce city of Madaba, Jordan. The study applies the new assessment framework on the study area and measures urban water security using the integrated urban water security index (IUWSI) and the analytic hierarchy process (AHP) as a decision management tool to prioritise and distinguish indicators that affect the four dimensions of urban water security: drinking water, ecosystems, climate change and water-related hazards, and socioeconomic aspects (DECS). The integrated urban water security index (IUWSI) highlights the state of water security and intervention strategies in Madaba. The study reveals that urban water security in Madaba is satisfactory to meet basic needs, with shortcomings in some aspects of the DECS. However, Madaba faces poor security in terms of managing climate- and water-related risks. The IUWSI framework assists with a rational and evidence-based decision-making process, which is important for enhancing water resources management in water-scarce cities.

Observation of the atmospheric water vapor stable isotopes in three dimensions over the Tibetan Plateau

The Third Pole with an average of 4 km above sea level, centered on the Tibetan Plateau and covered the surrounding regions, has gained growing attention as the Arctic and Antarctic, due to the largest store of water in the low latitude regions. In the past half-century, the fast and gigantic glacier retreating has changed the water supply for billions of people and increased the hazards of flood. The change of water in the interior third pole also alters the regional water cycle and ecological system. Moisture transport is a crucial process within the water cycle over the Tibetan Plateau. Atmospheric water vapor stable isotopes is a state-of-the-art tool to understand the moisture transport processes and mechanisms. In this paper, we describe the techniques for measuring water vapor stable isotopes and review the past studies of in-situ vertical profile measurements. With the strong support of the Second Tibetan Plateau Scientific Expedition and Research (STEP) project, we combine water vapor stable isotopes observations from a network of ground stations across the Third Pole (the largest observation network of instruments including nine running sites) with cutting edge tethered balloon measurements. In order to fully resolve the moisture transport across the Tibetan Plateau, collaboration among multiple disciplines is strongly needed in this study, and the extended monitoring of atmospheric water vapor stable isotopes in three dimensions (horizontally and vertically) is necessary for better understanding the moisture transport to the Tibetan Plateau. A new Earth System model that is appropriate for the water cycle over the Tibetan Plateau must be developed, representing the atmosphere, cryosphere, hydrosphere and biosphere of this unique region, and their interactions, at very high resolution, including the representation of water stable isotopes, aerosols and biogeochemical cycles. Such model would be able to quantify changes in Tibetan water cycle and servicing the regional strategies for water security and management.

Disaster-Risk, Water Security Challenges and Strategies in Small Island Developing States (SIDS)

Small island developing states (SIDS) are typically characterized by being environmentally and socio-economically vulnerable to disasters and climate change. Additionally, they often have limited resources for freshwater provisioning services. This article presents an assessment of disaster risk and water security-related challenges in SIDS focusing on three major dimensions: (a) how disaster risks are perceived and addressed in the SIDS context using a case study method, (b) analyzing the current status of water security in these regions using an indicator-based approach and (c) assessing gaps and needs in institutions and policies that can facilitate sustainable development goals (SDGs) and targets, adaptation and resilience building in SIDS. In this regard, information on all SIDS is collected to be able to distinguish trends in and between SIDS based on amongst others geographical location and characteristics. This synthesis noted two key observations: first, that in SIDS, the number of disasters is increasing at a higher rate than the global average, and that the frequency and intensity of the disasters will likely increase because of climate change. These combined factors will impact SIDS on the societal level and on environmental levels, reducing their adaptive capacity, resources, and resilience. Second, most SIDS are already water-scarce with low groundwater volumes. Because of increasing demand (e.g., population growth and tourism) and decreasing supply (e.g., pollution and changes in precipitation patterns) freshwater resources are becoming increasingly limited, often suffering from the spillover effects of competing and conflicting uses. Threatened ecosystems and limited economic resources further influence the adaptive capacities of communities in SIDS. In this light, key solutions to address disaster-risk and water security-related challenges can be found by sharing best practices and lessons learned—from examples of good governance, integrated policies, improved community-resilience, and capacity-building. Added to their fragile situation, SIDS struggle to find enough funding to put their development plans, programs, and policies into action.

Why doesn’t every family practice rainwater harvesting? Factors that affect the decision to adopt rainwater harvesting as a household water security strategy in central Uganda

ABSTRACTThis article investigates the reasons householders do, and don’t, adopt domestic rainwater harvesting (DRWH). Using a mixed-methods research approach, we collected data in three districts in central Uganda. Factors that emerged as important with respect to uptake of DWRH to address water shortage, especially at the household scale, include the work of intermediary organizations, finance mechanisms, life course dynamics and land tenure.

Scenario analysis of low-carbon development of energy industry with restriction of water resource in Xinjiang

Abstract This study empirically analyzes the prospects of the energy industry with the limited water resource in Xinjiang by extending an energy economic model. First, the past trends of water use in Xinjiang are analyzed. Energy utilization and industrial added value by sector are also investigated. Then, several important parameters such as economic growth rate, water saving rate, and energy saving rate are set exogenously. Especially, coal exploitation and utilization are selected as a typical case for studying energy development plan and technology choice. By keeping within the water requirement ‘red line’ and water security strategy, the acceptable speed and the future scale of the energy industry in Xinjiang are selected among several scenarios. Moreover, the interactions of economic growth, energy development, energy consumption, water requirement, and carbon dioxide emissions in Xinjiang are also analyzed. Finally, the technology choice of coal exploitation and utilization in Xinjiang with restriction of limited water resource is also suggested.

Assessing household livelihood vulnerability to climate change: The case of Northwest Vietnam

ABSTRACTThis study applied livelihood vulnerability index (LVI) and livelihood effect index (LEI) to assess vulnerability from climate variability and change of three agricultural and natural resources dependent commune in northwest Vietnam, a country that is expected to bear some of the most severe impacts of climate change. Based on a survey of 335 farm household data, complemented with secondary data on climate factors, a composite index was calculated and differential vulnerabilities were compared. The results of the analysis suggest that one of the communities, “Pa Vay Su,” was more vulnerable than the others, particularly in relation to housing, knowledge and skills, socio-demographics, health and water security, social networks, and livelihood strategy. “Hien Luong” commune, on the other hand, was more vulnerable in relation to other LVI indicators with the exception of food security, climate variability, and natural disasters. “Moc Chau” community was more vulnerable in relation to water security, social demographic than Hien Luong commune. Overall, the article shows that three different vulnerability assessment indices can be broadly applied in comparable setting in other areas of country and they could usefully establish the basis for a nationally applicable index to identify and prioritize adaptation and mitigation needs.

Amazon rainforest modulation of water security in the Pantanal wetland

The Pantanal is a large wetland mainly located in Brazil, whose natural resources are important for local, regional and global economies. Many human activities in the region rely on Pantanal's ecosystem services including cattle breeding for beef production, professional and touristic fishing, and contemplative tourism. The conservation of natural resources and ecosystems services provided by the Pantanal wetland must consider strategies for water security. We explored precipitation data from 1926 to 2016 provided by a regional network of rain gauge stations managed by the Brazilian Government. A timeseries obtained by dividing the monthly accumulated-rainfall by the number of rainy days indicated a positive trend of the mean rate of rainy days (mm/day) for the studied period in all seasons. We assessed the linkage of Pantanal's rainfall patterns with large-scale climate data in South America provided by NOAA/ESRL from 1949 to 2016. Analysis of spatiotemporal correlation maps indicated that, in agreement with previous studies, the Amazon biome plays a significant role in controlling summer rainfall in the Pantanal. Based on these spatiotemporal maps, a multi-linear regression model was built to predict the mean rate of summer rainy days in Pantanal by 2100, relative to the 1961–1990 mean reference. We found that the deforestation of the Amazon rainforest has profound implications for water security and the conservation of Pantanal's ecosystem services.

Contrasting runoff trends between dry and wet parts of eastern Tibetan Plateau

As the “Asian Water Tower”, the Tibetan Plateau (TP) provides water resources for more than 1.4 billion people, but suffers from climatic and environmental changes, followed by the changes in water balance components. We used state-of-the-art satellite-based products to estimate spatial and temporal variations and trends in annual precipitation, evapotranspiration and total water storage change across eastern TP, which were then used to reconstruct an annual runoff variability series for 2003–2014. The basin-scale reconstructed streamflow variability matched well with gauge observations for five large rivers. Annual runoff increased strongly in dry part because of increases in precipitation, but decreased in wet part because of decreases in precipitation, aggravated by noticeable increases in evapotranspiration in the north of wet part. Although precipitation primarily governed temporal-spatial pattern of runoff, total water storage change contributed greatly to runoff variation in regions with wide-spread permanent snow/ice or permafrost. Our study indicates that the contrasting runoff trends between the dry and wet parts of eastern TP requires a change in water security strategy, and attention should be paid to the negative water resources impacts detected for southwestern part which has undergone vast glacier retreat and decreasing precipitation.

Study of Domestic Water Mix

In the RPJMN 2015-2019, the domestic water mix is mentioned as an effort to optimize the various alternative domestic water sources available for the purpose of water utilization, including secondary water uses and water reclaiming. The domestic water mix in the RPJMN is part of the policy direction and strategy to build water security, complementing water-saving, water-saving, and water-keeping strategies. This concept is quite close to the term Integrated Urban Water Management (IUWM) and Water Sensitive Urban Design (WSUD) that some countries have developed. If the domestic water mix attempts to optimize the various alternatives of domestic water sources available then IUWM is a holistic approach to the competition of water use within a region. The domestic water mix is a new paradigm of water supply system by utilizing closed loop system, integrating the existing practice of conventional drinking water supply system by optimizing the potential of water source which has not been utilized yet. This paradigm first appeared in government planning documents, but the application has been done by stakeholders although still partially. This study aims to determine the condition of existing water treatment, best practices, and technological innovations that have been developed in support of the water mix system. The methods include the determination of hypotheses, secondary data collection, field survey, and evaluation, and look for alternative solutions. Lessons learned from the locations visited show the potential for utilizing the domestic water mix that can be done on an environmental, household, and area scales. All initiatives found in the field require support from the government, in the form of advocacy, facilitation, and policy interventions. Technical, socio-economic, financial and environmental and health aspects challenge the implementation of this new paradigm. A more in-depth study needs to be done to see the water mix optimization options at each coverage scale and analyze the aspects to consider before new paradigm applications are implemented. The follow-up study needs to be done with longer time and better funding to conduct a comprehensive pilot, deep analysis and assessment on a more grounded ground-level implementation.

First Nations' water sustainability and Security Strategy: Tools and methodologies for community-driven processes for water treatment in Indigenous communities

• Indigenous communities face persistent boil-water advisories and inadequate drinking water quality.