Percentage Of Water Saturation Research Articles

Reservoir Evaluation Model of the Khasib Formation in Halfaya Oil Field, Mesan Governorate, Southern Iraq.

Evaluating the reservoir characteristics of a formation or geological unit constitutes an essential element and an effective tool in leading the successful exploration project currently prevailing. The Khasib Formation, which belongs to the secondary depositional cycle (Turonian - Lower Campanian) in the study area within Mesan governorate southern Iraq, was chosen as a study site, as the Khasib is one of the main reservoirs within the Mesan oil fields. Seven wells were selected distributed over the field area, which structurally, is represented by two domes oriented from NW to SE, in addition to a thin dome with a length of 38000 m. and a width of 12000 m. The corrected well logs were used as input by creating an Excel sheet and then processing that data through the Petrel Software to prepare maps, sections and Three dimensional diagrams. The Cross-plot diagrams showed that the limestone (calcite) is a main lithology of Khasib with some dolomite. 3-dimensional petrophysical models were prepared, through which identified three reservoir units: (Khasib-A, Khasib-B and Khasib-C). The porosity model shows that there is a good percentage of porosity within the Khasib-A unit, with a low percentage in unit-B. As for unit-C, it was characterized by the best porosity percentages. The water saturation model showed a high percentage at Khasib-A unit, reaching 80%, and it increased at unit-B, reaching 90%, while unit-C was characterized by the lowest percentage of water saturation. The volume of shale model indicates low to moderate rates in the Khasib-A unit, and a slight increase in unit-B, while unit-C showed a low rate of shale volume within the three units with very low values in most of the study wells, which confirms the superior quality of this reservoir unit, which can be considered the main productive reservoir unit of the Khasib Formation in the Halfaya oil field.

Invasive plants alter soil properties and nutrient dynamics: A case study of Anthemis cotula invasion in Kashmir Himalaya

Plant invasion is considerably affecting terrestrial ecosystems by modulating soil nutrient cycling and ecological processes. Below-ground processes are of paramount interest to understand the long-term influences as well as the management of the invaded soil ecosystems. We studied the impact of a global plant invader, Anthemis cotula L. (stinking chamomile; Asteraceae), on key soil physicochemical properties across eight sites in the Kashmir Himalaya, India. At each site, two types (invaded and un-invaded) of adjacent plots (20 × 20 m2) with or without A. cotula were chosen for soil sampling. Soil properties from both invaded and un-invaded plots were analysed. We found significant (P < 0.05) variations in the studied soil parameters in the invaded and un-invaded plots across the study sites. The contents of organic C, total K, total N, total P, available N, and available K were 10–60% higher in the invaded plots compared with the un-invaded plots, whereas the available P content was 21% higher in the un-invaded plots. The findings revealed that A. cotula invasion significantly alters soil nutrient levels by modulating different physicochemical properties in invaded plots, such as soil pH, electrical conductivity, water saturation percentage, and porosity. The influence of plant invasion on soil properties was clearly highlighted by Principal Component Analysis, with the majority of them ordinated towards invaded areas except for the available P and bulk density. Overall, A. cotula alters essential soil properties, thereby potentially influencing the soil nutrient pools and processes, which may further facilitate its establishment and invasion potential in the mountain ecosystems. This study underlines the importance of implementing measures for controlling the invasion of A. cotula, implementing soil reclamation strategies, and conserving native landscape characteristics in the invaded area.

Trophic status of Lake Ilmen (2003– 2020)

Lake Ilmen is one of the most productive lakes in the northwestern part of European Russia. The purpose of the study was to assess the trophic status of the Ilmen in the period 2003–2020 based on two different indicators. The trophic status index (ITS) is calculated from two hydrochemical indicators: the pH value and the percentage of water saturation with oxygen. The other indicator of the trophic status is the average annual concentration of total phosphorus. Interannual ITS values for the period from 2003 to 2020 were determined. The input for the calculations was data from lake monitoring regularly conducted by the North-Western Department of Hydrometeorology and Environmental Monitoring. It has been established that the trophic status of Lake Ilmen in the specified period was mainly characterized as eutrophic except for years 2006, 2008, 2017, and 2019, when it was mesotrophic. According to the concentration of total phosphorus in 2003, the trophic status of the lake was characterized as hypertrophic, in 2018 as mesotrophic, while in other years it was eutrophic. It is advisable to apply the results of the study in decision-making for reducing the anthropogenic phosphorus loading on the lake.

INFLUENCE OF THE WATER SATURATION DEGREE ON DEMULSIFICATION OF THE RHEOLOGIC COMPLEX OILS

Studies of recent years have determined that oil emulsions are also characterized by a degree of water saturation. Since as water saturation increases (water dispersion in oil), the viscosity of oil emulsions increases significantly. The article investigated the rheological properties of various artificially created emulsions based on rheological complex oils at different temperatures. It has been determined that with an increasing of water cut and water saturation, the viscosity of the system will increase. The article also investigated the effect of changing the water content of oil on its demulsification. It has been found that by purposeful enlargement of water saturation it is possible to significantly reduce the demulsifier consumption while maintaining the efficiency of the dehydrating process. Demulsifier Disolvan-4411 was used for demulsification process. Water-oil emulsions with an initial water cut 22%were dosed with various reagent additives and samples were taken for analyzing. Temperature kept identical during all studies. The effectiveness of water-oil emulsions before and after demulsification with the demulsifier was evaluated by the amount of water dropped from stable water-emulsion in graduated bottles (method Bottle Test). Analyzing the stability of oil emulsions depending on water drop, according consumption of demulsifier we found that 2 factors impact effectiveness of demulsification process: the content of aqueous phase and degree of its dispersion. The result of experimental studies show that with an increase in oil water saturation, consumption of demulsifier decreases. Only with increasing water saturation percentage 70% and higher, the water drop rate exceeds 99%, which meets oil treatment requirements Keywords: oil emulsions, water saturation, viscosity, demulsification, demulsifier, flow curves.

Promissory Passiflora species (Passifloraceae) for its tolerance to water-salt stress

The aim of this study was to determine the tolerance of water and salt stress in four cultivated species of Passiflora L. Eleven accessions of four species of Passiflora of commercial interest from different plantations were evaluated. The experimental design was in sub-split plots, where the plot was the percentage of water saturation in relation to the requirement of the crop (33% and 100%). The subplot was established by the saturation levels of salt (sodium chloride reactive level - 99.9% purity) (EC: 1.5 and 5.5 dS m-1) with the 11 accessions in a completely randomized array with five replications, where the experimental unit was one plant. Results showed that accessions m11, m13 (P. edulis f. flavicarpa) and m15 (P. tarminiana) were determined as tolerant to salinity and drought; accesses m2 (P. edulis f. edulis), m12 and m14 (P. edulis f. flavicarpa) were moderately tolerant. These observations are the basis for future studies of drought tolerance in Passiflora, which must be followed by field evaluations.

1H NMR depth profiles combined with portable and micro-analytical techniques for evaluating cleaning methods and identifying original, non-original, and degraded materials of a 16th century Italian wall painting

In this study, portable NMR was applied to monitor and evaluate cleaning treatments on the surface of a 16th century Italian wall painting.Due to the complexity of the state of degradation of the wall painting, a campaign of measurements was carried in situ to evaluate the performance of traditional and innovative eco-friendly cleaning systems such as sulphate-reducing bacteria D. vulgaris confined in hydrogels, and to compare two different cleaning systems used to remove a degraded hydrophobic organic layer.Specifically, NMR stratigraphy allowed to determine the thickness of the organic layer covering the surface of the wall painting, its distribution in the wall painting, the presence of residues after applying the cleaning treatment, and to evaluate and compare the effectiveness of applied treatments. A new analytical parameter here named the solubilization degree of the cleaning system permitted the selection of the most performing treatment. 1H NMR depth profiles allowed to evaluate changes in the permeability of the wall painting caused by the presence of organic substances during the application of water-based cleaning systems, and to evaluate the water content and its depth of penetration in the wall painting. Changes in permeability were estimated calculating another new analytical parameter, i.e. the percentage of water saturation before and after the application of the cleaning treatment. Depth profiles also permitted the evaluation of the degree of wettability of the wall painting surface as a function of the time of application, and the obtainment of a detailed information about the interaction between water molecules, the gel network and the surface of the wall painting. Finally, to obtain the chemical characterization of the artefact surface a multi analytical approach was applied using both portable and micro-invasive analytical methodologies.

Impact of Sugarcane Bagasse Ash as an Amendment on the Physical Properties, Nutrient Content and Seedling Growth of a Certified Organic Greenhouse Growing Media

Sugarcane bagasse is the fibrous material remaining after removing the sucrose, water, and other impurities (filter mud) from the millable sugarcane. Louisiana sugarcane mills use a portion of the sugarcane bagasse to produce steam power to run equipment within the mill and/or as a boiler fuel for the clarification, evaporation, and crystallization processes. Sugarcane bagasse ash (SBA) is a by-product of the thermal conversion of the sugarcane bagasse. The purpose of this research was to investigate the use of SBA as an amendment to soilless planting media for the production of vegetable seedlings. The SBA was combined by volume with a commercial certified organic soilless growing media into 5 combinations (0%:100%, 25%:75%, 50%:50%, 75%:25%, and 100%:0%, SBA and growing media, respectively). Bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) var. ‘Bowie’ and Chinese kale (Brassica alboglabra) var. ‘South Sea’ were planted in each of the 5 different planting mixtures. As the percentage of SBA increased from 0% to 100%, the bulk densities increased, 0.118 to 0.712 g/cm3, while the porosity, water saturation percentage, and water at field capacity decreased. Increasing the SBA percentage significantly impacted total exchange capacity, pH, organic matter, estimated nitrogen release, and all other nutrients measured, except for sodium. The research indicates that the addition of SBA can enhance bean and Chinese kale seedling growth depending on the percentage of the ash added to the growth media. Bean and Chinese kale harvest parameters typically peaked at 25% SBA, and then decreased with increasing SBA %. Adding 25% SBA did benefit the seedling growth by providing additional nutrients for seedling growth, while reducing the cost of production by supplementing the more expensive greenhouse media by a readily available by-product of the sugarcane industry. Increasing the SBA % to 50% or greater is not recommend. Additional research is needed to determine the percentage above 25% and below 50% SBA that would still benefit seedling plant growth.

Changes of water quality of the Osówka stream flowing through ponds Syrenie Stawy in Szczecin (NW -Poland) in selected periods in the years 1994–2014

The aim of discernment changes in water quality of stream Os&oacute;wka flowing through ponds Syrenie Stawy in Szczecin (NW-Poland) conducted in the years 1994&ndash;2014 the study of basic water chemistry indices in the Os&oacute;wka Stream water inflow and outflow area of water in/from ponds Syrenie Stawy, which were used to calculate the value of the National Sanitation Foundation Water Quality Index (NSF-WQI). The NFS-WQI values were calculated on the basis of temperature, pH, dissolved oxygen (as a percentage of water saturation), BOD5and concentration of nitrates and total phosphates carried out in 1994&ndash;1995, 1999&ndash;2000, 2006&ndash;2007 and 2014, i.e. during time periods, and in particular the decrease in the amount of inflowing industrial pollution and the changes of anthropopressure related to the hydrotechnical works of stream Os&oacute;wka and ponds Syrenie Stawy. In assessing according to the criteria of NFS WQI procedure &ndash; studied water quality corresponded good and medium to average quality. On the basis of the values and changes in values of NSF-WQI it has been shown that quality water flowing through ponds Syrenie Stawy in subsequent periods the was getting worse, while self-cleaning effect ofthe waters along the ponds Syrenie Stawy gradually increase, especially after hydrotechnical works. It has been estimatedthat the NSF-WQI procedure to assess the quality and discerning water quality changes in the flow ponds in long-time period, based on the basic physical and chemical water quality indices &ndash; can be useful to use in practice.

Numerical Analysis Considering the Effects of Liquid Water on PEMFC Unsteady Performance

1. IntroductionOptimization of the water condition in the PEMFC is a critical factor to increase power generation efficiency, however, water transport behavior in the cell is complicated and difficult to be studied by experimental methods because of the thinness of components of the PEMFC. Combined use of experiments and numerical analysis is better way to understand phenomena in the cell, and the latter is mainly used in this report. Three-dimensional analytical model considering distributions of temperature and liquid water in GDL and gas channel is developed to estimate unsteady performance of the PEMFC. For estimating gas diffusivity in GDL with liquid water, not only the percentage of water saturation, the effects of droplet size is newly considered in the present model. Effective thermal conductivity and evaporation kinetic coefficient are also considered to have dependence on the abundance of droplet size. Finally, the proposed model was validated by comparing steady and unsteady calculation results with the experimental ones.2. Analytical methodsPresent model considered gas and liquid water transport, electrical equivalent circuit and heat transport described in our previous paper. The liquid water transport in channels and GDLs is also calculated. In the channels, the liquid water is supposed to form a film like shape, and the velocity of liquid water was determined by difference of pressure between gas and liquid phase and shear force by the gas flow. In GDL, we have visualized liquid water distribution state by synchrotron X-ray CT. The visualized image insisted that the water droplet size distribution varied according to the impregnation modes. The impregnation modes, we assume, consists of transportation by capillary force, condensation, and drying. The droplet size distributions of drying and condensation are plotted in Fig. 1 and the bigger droplet in the condensation mode are clearly observed. In addition, the thermal conductivity and the gas diffusivity through the GDL, we measured, also varied depending on the water impregnation methods. The numerical model could not ignore the dependence of the effects of droplet size or impregnation modes. Then, we have regarded the water droplet as forming two different diameters for representative of various sizes. The multiple droplet diameter model is also applied to evaporation rate.3. Results and discussionsThe measured time response of normalized membrane resistances after current density change from 0.5[A/cm2] to 0.01[A/cm2] was plotted in Fig. 2 by dots. The response was not simple and it had at least three flection points. The calculated results with and without consideration of the droplet size effects were also shown in Fig. 3. A calculated response without consideration, dotted line, is a simpler curve with only two flection points and did not accord with the measured response. On the other hands, the solid line considering droplet size was close to the measured plots with also at least three similar flection points. This complicated curve could not calculated by the simple model without consideration of multiple droplet size. The calculated liquid water saturation distribution is shown in Fig. 3, and the difference of water saturation under rib and channel could be a reason for the complicated response. Dotted curve of the numerical results without consideration of liquid water in gas channel was also shown in Fig. 3 and Fig. 4 shows calculated liquid water saturation distribution in gas channel. The model without consideration of liquid water in gas channel could not predict the measured complicated curve and liquid water saturation distribution in gas channel has correlation with that of GDL. From this, it was found that liquid water in gas channel has a major effect on unsteady response.

Estimation of infiltration rate and deep percolation water using feed-forward neural networks in Gorgan Province

The two common methods used to develop PTFs are multiple-linear regression method and Artificial Neural Network. One of the advantages of neural networks compared to traditional regression PTFs is that they do not require a priori regression model, which relates input and output data and in general is difficult because these models are not known. So at present research, we compare performance of feed-forward back-propagation network to predict soil properties. Soil samples were collected from different horizons profiles located in the Gorgan Province, North of Iran. Measured soil variables included texture, organic carbon, water saturation percentage Bulk density, Infiltration rate and deep percolation. Then, multiple linear regression and neural network model were employed to develop a pedotransfer function for predicting soil parameters using easily measurable characteristics of clay, silt, SP, Bd and organic carbon. The performance of the multiple linear regression and neural network model was evaluated using a test data set by R 2 , RMSE and RSE. Results showed that artificial neural network with two and five neurons in hidden layer had better performance in predicting soil hydraulic properties than multivariate regression. In conclusion, the result of this study showed that both ANN and regression predicted soil properties with relatively high accuracy that showed that strong relationship between input and output data and also high accuracy in determining of data.

Environmental and agricultural benefits of a management system designed for sandy loam soils of the humid tropics

A sustainable management of soils with low natural fertility on family farms in the humid tropics is a great challenge and overcoming it would be an enormous benefit for the environment and the farmers. The objective of this study was to assess the environmental and agronomic benefits of alley cropping, based on the evaluation of C sequestration, soil quality indicators, and corn yields. Combinations of four legumes were used in alley cropping systems in the following treatments: Clitoria fairchildiana + Cajanus cajan; Acacia mangium + Cajanus cajan; Leucaena leucocephala + Cajanus cajan; Clitoria fairchildiana + Leucaena leucocephala; Leucaena leucocephala + Acacia mangium and a control. Corn was used as a cash crop. The C content was determined in the different compartments of soil organic matter, CEC, available P, base saturation, percentage of water saturation, the period of the root hospitality factor below the critical level and corn yield. It was concluded that alley cropping could substitute the slash and burn system in the humid tropics. The main environmental benefit of alley cropping is the maintenance of a dynamic equilibrium between C input and output that could sustain up to 10 Mg ha-1 of C in the litter layer, decreasing atmospheric CO2 levels. Alley cropping is also beneficial from the agricultural point of view, because it increases base saturation and decreases physical resistance to root penetration in the soil layer 0 - 10 cm, which ensures the increase and sustainability of corn yield.

Water Leachates of Nitrate Nitrogen and Cations from Poultry Manure Added to an Alfisol Udalf Soil

The influence that the application to a soil of different doses of poultry manure may have on nitrate concentrations of the leaching waters and some soil chemical characteristics was studied. The doses of poultry manure that could prevent nitrate pollution under the assay conditions were also determined. The assay was carried out in a greenhouse using 36 lysimeters of 300-l capacity, which were filled with 200 l of an Alfisol Udalf soil each. Treatments consisted of single applications of fresh poultry manure at doses of 45 (T1), 22.5 (T2), 11.25 (T3), 5.63 (T4), 2.82 (T5), 1.41 (T6), and 0.70 (T7) kg m−2, 0.02 g of N per square meter as ammonium nitrosulfate (T8), and a control (T0; not fertilized). Lixiviates were gathered every 15 days from each replication and evaluated for NO3-N, P, Ca, Mg, K, electrical conductivity (EC) and sodium absorption rate. Soil samples were taken at the beginning and at the end of the assay and their physico-chemical characteristics (e.g., water saturation percentage, pH, OM, EC, and available P, K, Ca, and Mg) were analyzed. The amounts of NO3-N leached from the higher doses of poultry manure could represent very important economic losses of N and pose an environmental threat in field conditions. Results suggest that 2.82 kg m−2 of poultry manure or less could be used without negative effects to groundwaters higher than the control. No statistical differences of NO3-N lixiviation between the control and the application of ammonium nitrosulfate were observed. Treatments T1 and T2 produced the highest quantities of Ca, Mg, and K lixiviations. Harmful levels of EC were detected in T1 and T2 lixiviates. Available soil P increased in treatments T1 to T6, while available K and Mg and EC rose with the higher doses of poultry manure.

Topsoil Thichkness Effects on Soil Properties and Maize (Zea mays) Yield in Three Ecoregions of Tanzania

ABSTRACT Erosion-productivity experiments were conducted in the Kilimanjaro, Tanga, and Morogoro ecoregions for seven predominant soils of these areas. Decrease in topsoil thickness adversely affected a number of soil properties and reduced maize grain yield. Among the most important effects were diminution of soil organic carbon (SOC), cation exchange capacity (CEC), pH, total soil N (TSN), available P, available water capacity (AWC), and water saturation percentage. The magnitude of effects differed between soils and ecoregions. Maize grain yield was positively and significantly correlated with topsoil thickness, SOC, total N, CEC, and AWC. Maize grain yield declined at the rate of 38.5, 55.0 and 87.7 kg per cm decrease in topsoil thickness in the Kilimanjaro, Tanga and Morogoro ecoregions, respectively.

Larval–Pupal Mortality of Mediterranean Fruit Fly (Diptera: Tephritidae) from Interaction of Soil, Moisture, and Temperature

Survival of Ceratitis capitata (Wiedemann) larval and pupal stages was determined in several soil types at three levels of water saturation at 15 and 25°C, as well as in water. Survival was negatively correlated with the soil bulk density but positively, with percentage of porous space and percentage of water saturation. Temperature and soil texture both interacted with moisture to give the lowest emergence from dry soils with high bulk density at 15°C. Larvae submerged under water survived up to 4 d and pupae, 3 d. When submerged intermittently for 9 and 12 h daily, 65% of 3rd instar larvae and 17% of pupae, respectively, survived to emerge as adults. The pupal stage lasted 45–56 d at 15°C for survivors. Mortality in wet soils was not caused by pathogenic organisms. We conclude that water loss during a lengthy pupal period at low temperature in soils with low water holding capacity during the dry season is the probable cause of pupal mortality. Anoxia, on the other hand, may be the cause of death during the rainy season in soils with high bulk densities.

Study of the Resistivity of Coal Seams of the Jharia Coalfield, India

Abstract An attempt has been made to study electrical properties of coal seams of the Jharia Coalfield, India. For this purpose, variations of resistivity values with percentage of water saturation have been studied in the laboratory for 63 coal samples belonging to 16 coal seams of this coalfield. Effective porosity values for all these samples lie within 5 percent. It has been observed that the resistivity values for the samples decay exponentially with increase in percentage of water saturation. A large difference in resistivity values is seen among the coal seams, even when they are fully saturated with water. Sometimes, samples of the same coal seam also show a large difference in resistivity value under full saturation condition. On account of their complex behavior, no general and clear relationship between “depth and porosity” and “depth and resistivity at 100 percent saturation” for coal seams have been obtained. Resistivity values of coal seams decrease considerably with higher percentage of water saturation, although no clear dependence on porosity values could be established. Field results of a few Schlumberger soundings over coal seams of this coalfield have been correlated with laboratory measurements.

Nitrogen Loss from Manure as Influenced by Moisture and Temperature

AbstractSoil temperature and moisture are important in cattle waste management. The effects of these two variables on N losses from different rates of applied manure were studied under greenhouse conditions at two soil moisture (60 and 90% of water saturation percentage, WSP) and two soil temperature (10 and 25C) levels.The manure rate did not have a significant effect on the percentage of loss of applied N. At 10C, the average losses of applied N were 26 and 39%, respectively, for the 60 and 90% moisture levels. Higher losses of 40 and 45% were obtained for the 60 and 90% levels, respectively, at 25C. Results suggest that these losses occurred largely through volatilization of NH3. Under conditions where significant nitrification occurred, there were greater concentrations of electrolytes associated with reduction in pH indicating that leaching of NO3− cannot be divorced from soluble salts in manure disposal areas.With N losses approaching 50% of the applied N, large quantities of N are being volatilized to the atmosphere over large and concentrated dairy and feedlot areas.

Applied Nitrogen Losses in Relation to Oxygen Status of Soils

AbstractThe decrease in soil nitrate nitrogen as related to redox potential was studied in the laboratory and in the field in Imperial Valley, Calif.Partial anaerobic conditions were induced in laboratory flasks containing an atmosphere of 21% oxygen by adjusting the soil‐water ratio. When the water content of a soil having a water saturation percentage of 48% was increased to 44.5% or above, large losses of N2 gas occurred both with and without addition of organic matter. Significant denitrification coincided with a decrease in the redox potential (Eh).Measurement of redox potential and nitrate concentrations of ground water sampled at various depths in an irrigated field indicated that nitrate concentration was high near the surface but decreased at depths approaching the water table. The diminishing nitrate concentration and redox potential, with depth, indicate that some nitrates were reduced to nitrogen gas before they reached the water table.Only 1.5% of the 280 kg N/hectare applied to a cotton crop (Gossypium hirsutum L.) was discharged in the tile effluent during the growing season. Denitrification in the soil profile apparently reduced the amount of nitrate reaching the tile drainage system.

Studies on Sod Mulching and Straw Mulching in Tea Garden (Part 1)

The influence of sod mulching and strawmulching on the growth of tea plant and the physical properties of soil was studied in the young tea garden, for three years since 1960. The results were summarized as follows.1. The sod mulching was significantly superior to the non-treatment in the height of plant and the growth of autumn bud. The strawmulching was inferior to the sod mulching in the above characters, but was better than the non-treatment.2. The sod-mulching and straw-mulching have not influence upon. the porosity of soil, yet the sod-mulching became effective on the increase of water-unfilled percentage in porosity, the straw-mulching increased water-saturation percentage.

Bubble Formation and Modification in the Sea and its Meteorological Significance

It is believed that the vast majority of the airborne salt nuclei arise from bursting bubbles at the air—sea water interface. Four natural mechanisms for the production of these bubbles have been studied. These are whitecaps, rain, snow and supersaturation of the surface waters of the sea due to spring warming. The bubble spectra from whitecaps and snowflakes have been measured and semi-quantitative and qualitative observations have been made on the bubble spectrum produced by raindrops. No evidence of bubble production by spring warming has been obtained.&#x0D; All of the measurements show that a majority of the bubbles are &lt; 200 microns diameter and, in the case of bubbles from snowflakes, &lt; 50 microns. In the vicinity of a breaking wave the bubble production rate is about 30 cm−2 sec−1.&#x0D; Due to the effects of surface tension in increasing the bubble internal pressure all bubbles &lt; 300 microns will go into solution even at sea water air saturations of 102 percent. Bubbles &lt; 20 microns will go into solution at saturations up to 115 percent! The solution time for small bubbles of about 10 microns is about 10 sec and is not markedly affected by the water saturation percentage.&#x0D; It is concluded that the effects of the rate of solution of bubbles in sea water can, under some conditions, play a significant role in modifying the initial bubble spectrum. This, in turn, should influence the spectrum of airborne nuclei.