Waterproof Clothing Research Articles

PFAS-mediated disruptions on thyroid histology

Abstract Introduction/Objective Per-and polyfluroalkyl substances (PFAS), are environmental contaminants of emerging concern due to their abundance in the environment and potential adverse health impacts. PFAS are used in waterproof clothing, makeup, carpets, upholstery, cookware, and fast-food containers. These organic pollutants have been found in the blood of 98% of Americans and have been linked to disruption in thyroid hormones. During fetal life, thyroid hormones are crucial for brain development and alterations in these hormones can induce long-term impacts on intellectual and brain impairments. T3 and T4 are known to be altered by PFAS exposure, but the mechanism by which this is done remains unclear. Methods/Case Report Normal thyroid cells were treated for 72 hours with 1000 nM solution containing either GEnX, PFOA, PFOS, or 1% DMSO control. Immunofluorescence for actin, tubulin, and DAPI was performed using a Nikon spinning disk. In vivo studies where 8-week-old mice are gavaged with 7.5 mg/kg of PFOS, PFOA, and GenX or PBS control for 8 weeks. Results (if a Case Study enter NA) We hypothesized the PFAS treatment alters thyroid cells morphology and histology. Immunofluorescence staining of normal thyroid cells treated with PFAS show a decrease in actin stress fibers compared to control cells. PFAS treated mice show a decrease in follicle size compared to control (average 1017 um2 size, p=0.0483). Conclusion This is the first study to show changes in thyroid histology after 8 weeks of PFAS exposure. As structure and function are closely linked, it is likely that this reduction in follicle size and actin reorganization contribute to alterations in thyroid function. Future studies are needed to illuminate the mechanism by which PFAS alter thyroid function in vivo. Understanding the role of PFAS-mediated thyroid dysregulation will have far reaching implications on environmental regulations and considerations for limiting PFAS in our environment.

Epidemiologic Assessment of Scabies: Actuality of Airborne Transmission and Additional Standards to Reduce Spread of Contagion and Reinfestation

Scabies are caused by parasites that live their entire life within the outer layers of the epidermis. When dislodged either by gravity, friction, motion, wind, or static electricity, they assume great risks to survival. Innate abilities to sense human smell and heat, to move over short distances, and to penetrate the skin quickly allow them a fighting chance to find a new host if they land within 4 inches of a human. Females store sperm, allowing one mite to begin a colony. Transmission is by person-to-person, fomite, and airborne. They are aerodynamic, light, and balloon-shaped, all making airborne transmission easier than previously understood, as well as explaining the dissemination of mites beyond the normal zones of activity of the index case. Presently, the bulk of the medical literature suggests that transmission from inanimate objects poses little concern in common scabies. However, as mites can navigate through cloth gowns, one might consider protection with more protective garb. Mites cannot penetrate through waterproof clothing, and thus, this attire should be recommended to avoid reinfestation and infesting others. Sofas, chairs, office furniture, and car seats on which an index case might sit need to be covered with plastic sheeting. Given that the half-life of ivermectin is 18 hours and that mites dehydrate within 96 hours, strict transmission controls are only needed for 3 days to avoid reinfestation as well as infesting others. Key Points Scabies is an intensely itchy skin rash caused by a burrowing mite that infects the outer layers of the skin. Scabies is contagious and usually spread by direct, prolonged skin-to-skin contact with an infected person; however, fomite and airborne transmission are also operative. Precautions should be in place to avoid direct skin-to-skin contact between a patient with scabies and visitors. Water-proof clothing would be advisable, especially in cases involving Norwegian scabies. Success rates with oral ivermectin would more closely approach 100% if all transmission factors, including fomite and airborne, were addressed.

Unstitching the Past: An Experimental and Microwear Investigation of Dorset (Paleo-Inuit) Needles from the Foxe Basin Region

For Paleo-Inuit cultures, needles are arguably one of the most important artefact types, as they were used to create warm, waterproof clothing that is essential for survival in Arctic environments. This, in combination with the prevalence of needles within archaeological collections, has prompted many researchers to the topic of Paleo-Inuit needles. However, the majority of their studies have approached the material using traditional, typological methodology. A pilot study conducted by Siebrecht et al. (2021) demonstrated that, while needles from several Dorset Paleo-Inuit culture (c. 800 – 1300 AD) sites in the Foxe Basin region were previously considered as typologically identical, microwear analysis highlighted variation in how they would have been made and used over time and across sites. The pilot study also noted variation, across sites, in certain typological attributes, such as needle eye shape, distal end shape, and cross-section shape. The present study aims to expand on these discoveries by considering possible reasons for variability in the attribute of needle cross-section shape. Methodologically, we use microwear analysis, experimental archaeology, and ethnographic collaboration. With this approach, we were able to explore Dorset needle making and sewing practices in more detail than has been possible in prvevious, purely typology-focused studies. Our results showed no observable pattern between cross-section shape and the material being sewn but may reveal links between needle size and the material being sewn, a correlation in different polish types and the duration of needle use, as well as insights into the possible sewing techniques used by Dorset groups. Our study thus offers a fresh perspective on this topic and points to new directions for this area of Arctic archaeological research.

Environmental problems associated with the production of chromium-containing materials and effective ways to solve them

The environmental safety of the main oxides used in the production of refractories is evaluated. The chemical and mineral compositions of sludge samples from the sludge storage facility No. 1 of JSC «Russian Chrome 1915» are given. The recommended project of an eco-friendly waste landfill is presented. A movable covering device for surfaces large in length and volume, as well as a device for laying a waterproof cloth under wind load of a passing or opposite direction of movement of the trolley, are proposed. Ill. 5. Ref. 7. Tab. 5.

Determinants of polyfluoroalkyl substances and perfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) biomarkers in First Nations Communities of the Northwest Territories and Yukon

Background and Aim: Polyfluoroalkyl substances and perfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) include numerous anthropogenic chemicals used in firefighting foams, non-stick cookware, food packaging, and waterproof clothing. Research has shown some PFAS exposures appear to be decreasing in the general population of Canada. In contrast, prior to a human biomonitoring research completed in Old Crow, Yukon and the Mackenzie Valley, Northwest Territories, much less was known on exposure patterns for Dene and Gwich’in populations. This research aims to describe exposure patterns among these populations by identifying determinants and potential sources of PFAS exposure for participants. Method: Nine PFAS (including: perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA), perfluorooctane sulphonic acid (PFOS), perfluorohexane sulphonic acid (PFHxS), perfluorononanoic acid (PFNA), perfluorodecanoic acid (PFDA), and perfluoroundecanoic acid (PFUdA), perfluorobutanoic acid (PFBA), perfluorohexanoic acid (PFHxA), and perfluorobutane sulphonic acid (PFBS)) were quantified using liquid chromatography mass spectrometry in blood samples collected in Old Crow (n=54) and the Dehcho Region, Northwest Territories (n=125). Results: This research showed that, for most PFAS, levels in Old Crow and the Dehcho Region, Northwest Territories were similar or lower to those observed in the Canadian Health Measures Survey. The key exception to this was perfluorononanoic acid (PFNA) which, relative to the CHMS (0.51 μg/L), was approximately 1.8 times higher in Old Crow (0.94 μg/L) and 2.8 times higher in Dehcho (1.42 μg/L) than observed in the general Canadian population. This presentation will report results describing the associations, using multivariable logistic regression, between PFAS levels and consumption of traditional food, lifestyle factors, and demographics. Conclusions: The results highlight the importance of expanding PFAS analytical suites beyond PFOS and PFOA for both human biomonitoring as well as environmental sampling in northern environments. Keywords: Biomonitoring; Contaminants; Indigenous; Traditional Foods; PFAS; PFNA

METHODOLOGY FOR EVALUATING THE PROPERTIES OF WATERPROOF CLOTHING MATERIALS

The article is devoted to the development of a methodology for assessing the performance properties of composite textile materials for waterproof clothing. The existing normative and instrumental base for research of properties of materials for waterproof clothes is criticised, and a new methodological approach to the research and estimation of indicators determining the quality of waterproof clothes is substantiated. It consists in creation of such methods and means, which allow simulation of operating conditions for making a decision on suitability/unsuitability of a material for manufacturing clothes by a chosen method and for use in a designated field of application on the basis of results of comparative analysis of material properties be-fore and after such simulation. This approach is based on the analysis of manufacturing and operating con-ditions of a particular garment model. A concept, algorithm, methods and means of investigating the proper-ties of composite textile materials for waterproof clothing have been developed. The prospects of application of the developed methodology are outlined.

Dry Run

Through its invention of GORE-TEX® fabric, Gore has become synonymous with waterproof clothing. Today, the company plays an equally vital role keeping our phones dry.

Analyses and findings of unusual substitute materials in a raincoat from WWII

Due to the coating materials used, historic raincoats are vulnerable to degradation and rarely survive long periods of time. The investigated raincoat dating from 1943 is no exception—the coating is unusually stiff and flaking off in areas around folds and cracks. Study into its material composition can contribute to important knowledge of the availability of materials for waterproof clothing during the time of the German occupation of Denmark (1940–1945) when the usual materials for raincoats, cotton fabric and rubber, were in short supply. Optical microscopy and attenuated total reflectance-Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (ATR-FTIR) identified the fabric to consist of rayon staple fibres and paper yarn, and the coating to be based on cellulose nitrate (CN) lacquer and an unknown plasticiser. Though the results are atypical for a raincoat, they are in good accordance with the raw materials available in Denmark in 1943. Analysis by matrix-assisted laser desorption-ionisation mass spectrometry (MALDI-MS), and 1H and 13C nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy (NMR), identified the plasticiser as poly(1,3-butylene) adipate. Powder X-ray diffraction (PXRD) moreover identified the pigment as titanium white of the anatase form. By historical discussion, this study argues that IG Farben is the likely producer of poly(1,3-butylene) adipate, even though the first known marketing of the plasticiser is from 1986 where the Swiss firm Ciba-Geigy introduced poly(1,3-butylene) adipate as a plasticiser for PVC cling films under the tradename Reoplex® 346. The results give an interesting insight into the use of substitution products during WWII and provide new information on polymer science of the time.

Biomarkers of poly- and perfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) in Sub-Arctic and Arctic communities in Canada.

Polyfluoroalkyl substances and perfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) are a family of anthropogenic chemicals that are used in food packaging, waterproof clothing, and firefighting foams for their water and oil resistant properties. Though levels of some PFAS appear to be decreasing in Canada's south, environmental levels have been increasing in the Arctic due to long-range transport. However, the implications of this on human exposures in sub-Arctic and Arctic populations in Canada have yet to be established. To address this data gap, human biomonitoring research was completed in Old Crow, Yukon, and the Dehcho region, Northwest Territories. Blood samples were collected from adults residing in seven northern First Nations and were analyzed by liquid chromatography mass spectrometry. A total of nine PFAS were quantified: perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA), perfluorooctane sulphonic acid (PFOS), perfluorohexane sulphonic acid (PFHxS), perfluorononanoic acid (PFNA), perfluorodecanoic acid (PFDA), and perfluoroundecanoic acid (PFUdA), perfluorobutanoic acid (PFBA), perfluorohexanoic acid (PFHxA), and perfluorobutane sulphonic acid (PFBS). In the Dehcho (n=124), five PFAS had a detection rate greater than 50% including PFOS, PFOA, PFHxS, PFNA, and PFDA. In addition to these PFAS, PFUdA was also detected in at least half of the samples collected in Old Crow (n=54). Generally, male participants had higher concentrations of PFAS compared to female participants, and PFAS concentrations tended to increase with age. For most PFAS, Old Crow and Dehcho levels were similar or lower to those measured in the general Canadian population (as measured through the Canadian Health Measures Survey or CHMS) and other First Nations populations in Canada (as measured through the First Nations Biomonitoring Initiative or FNBI). The key exception to this was for PFNA which, relative to the CHMS (0.51μg/L), was approximately 1.8 times higher in Old Crow (0.94μg/L) and 2.8 times higher in Dehcho (1.42μg/L) than observed in the general Canadian population. This project provides baseline PFAS levels for participating communities, improving understanding of human exposures to PFAS in Canada. Future research should investigate site-specific PFNA exposure sources and monitor temporal trends in these regions.

Study on Rheological Properties of Silica Sol in Sisal Fibber Reinforced Investment Casting

In casting temperature Laquan silica sol crust process suitable for the production of surface roughness is small, precision high accuracy in size, and has become the mainstream technology has been widely used. Silicon sol casting with high dimensional accuracy, good surface quality and other advantages, is a widely used less advanced technology without cutting, using silica sol casting method can save a lot of machine equipment and processing time, but also greatly saves metal materials. Hard fiber sisal has high tensile strength, resistance to seawater immersion, friction resistance, flexibility and other characteristics, can be used for fishing, sailing, mining, transportation rope, canvas, waterproof cloth and other raw materials. The most commonly used binder in investment casting is silica gel solution (abbreviated as silica sol), such as ethyl silicate hydrolysate, water glass and silica sol.

Perfluoroalkyl substances exposure and hearing impairment in US adults

BackgroundPer- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) are widely applied in consumer and industrial products such as nonstick cookware, waterproof clothing, food packaging materials, and fire-fighting foams. These “forever chemicals” are hypothesized to impact neurobehavioral functions. Yet no previous study has explored the role of PFAS on audiometrically determined hearing impairment (HI). ObjectivesTo investigate the associations of serum concentrations of perfluoroalkyl substances with low-frequency HI (LFHI) and high-frequency HI (HFHI) in US adults. MethodsWe evaluated the cross-sectional associations in 2371 adults aged 20–69 years who participated in the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) 2003–2004, 2011–2012 and 2015–2016; and 449 adults aged ≥70 years from NHANES 2005–2006 and 2009–2010. Serum concentrations of perfluorohexane sulfonic acid (PFHxS), perfluorooctane sulfonic acid (PFOS), perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA), perfluorononanoic acid (PFNA) and perfluorodecanoic acid (PFDA), were measured using solid-phase extraction coupled to High Performance Liquid Chromatography-Turbo Ion Spray ionization-tandem Mass Spectrometry. LFHI was defined as a pure-tone average (PTA) of thresholds across 0.5-1-2 kHz >25 dB; HFHI defined as a PTA across 3-4-6 kHz >25 dB in the worse ear. Survey-weighted logistic regression models were used to compute odds ratios (ORs) and 95% confidence intervals (CIs) with adjustment for age, age-squared, sex, race/ethnicity, education, poverty-to-income ratio, body mass index, smoking status, exposures to occupational, recreational and firearm noises, and NHANES cycles. ResultsThere were no significant associations when perfluoroalkyl variables were fitted as a linear (log-transformed) term. However, statistically significant associations of HFHI with PFNA (OR = 1.70, 95% CI: 1.13–2.56) and PFDA (OR = 1.75, 95% CI: 1.00–3.05) were observed when comparing participants with serum concentrations ≥90th vs. <90th percentiles of PFNA (90th percentile = 1.8 ng/mL) and PFDA (90th percentile = 0.5 ng/mL), respectively, in adults aged 20–69 years. No significant associations were observed for other compounds in adults aged 20–69 years and for all compounds in adults ≥70 years. ConclusionsOur study does not provide strong evidence to support the ototoxicity of PFAS exposure. Non-linear threshold dose-response associations between serum concentrations of PFNA and PFDA and HFHI need further investigation.

Perfluoroalkyl acids in serum of Korean children: Occurrences, related sources, and associated health outcomes

Perfluoroalkyl acids (PFAAs) have been widely used in human environment, and their exposure among general population has been frequently reported. However, extent of PFAAs exposure and their potential effects among children are not well characterized. In this study, children of between 3 and 18 years of age (n = 150) were recruited in Seoul and Gyeonggi, Korea, and the serum levels of 16 PFAAs along with lipids and thyroid hormones were measured. Questionnaire survey was conducted for dietary and behavioral characteristics of the children. Among the measured PFAAs, PFOA, PFNA, PFHxS, and PFOS were detected in all the samples, and PFUnDA and PFDA were detected in over 75% of the samples. PFOS was detected at the highest concentration with a median of 5.68 ng/mL. PFUnDA was detected at higher levels (median of 0.652 ng/mL) compared to those reported for children in USA. Serum PFAA levels were not different by sex among the children of <10 years of age, but in older children, those of boys are significantly higher than girls. Physiological characteristics like menstruation may explain lower PFAAs levels of the girls. In addition, breastmilk consumption, fish/shellfish consumption, non-stick frying pan use, and waterproof cloth use were identified as potential sources of PFAAs exposure. Serum PFUnDA level was positively associated with total cholesterol and low-density lipoprotein level of the children. PFNA was positively associated with free T4 level. High levels of PFUnDA among children and its association with serum lipids warrant replication and confirmation in other populations and/or supports by experimental studies.

Fabrication of Polyurethane and Nylon 66 Hybrid Electrospun Nanofiber Layer for Waterproof Clothing Applications

ABSTRACTWaterproof textiles have wide applications in many fields such as sportswear, protective clothing, and orthopedic dressing. Breathability is an important factor of clothing comfort. Nanofibrous layers have application in these fields due to their interconnected porous area and high surface area. In this work, two different nanofiber layers were fabricated and examined as waterproof and breathable layers. Polyurethane (PU) and PU/nylon 66 (hybrid) nanofiber layers were produced via electrospinning set up with different electrospinning durations. Some of the samples’ characteristics such as tensile strength, microindentation, air permeability, water vapor permeability (WVP), and contact angle of water were investigated. Moreover, a novel approach was applied for determining the performance of layers against acidic water to simulate acidic rain. The results show that the tensile strength, indentation force, and acidic waterproof ability of the layers increased with increasing the process duration, that is, while air permeability was decreased simultaneously. This work shows that the required force for indentation and strength of the hybrid layer was less than that of PU nanofiber layer. Also, the electrospun hybrid layers show better air permeability than the PU membrane but still have lower WVP, which affects the breathability of the layer.

Research on the seam performance of waterproof clothing based on continuous ultrasonic welding technology

Purpose An improved waterproof seam production technology (ultrasonic welding-thermo adhesive tape sealing (USW-TATS)) was developed in this study. The technology will improve the waterproof performance of seam which has problem resulted from needle holes and thread like seam leaking and excess shrinkage. Design/methodology/approach Threadless seams were produced by ultrasonic welding (USW) with coated and lamination fabric to replace the traditional sewing process in Sewing-thermo adhesive tape sealing (S-TATS). The process efficiency was evaluated by Methods-Time Measurement (MTM). Seam performance including hydrostatic pressure, shrinkage and tear force was compared among three technologies (USW, USW-TATS and S-TATS). The effect of ultrasonic welding parameters (amplitude, roller pressure and roller speed) on the USW-TATS seam performance was investigated.SEM analysis was carried out to examine the condition and morphology of the joints cross section. Findings It was found that waterproof performance and dimensional stability of USW-TATS seam were superior to that of S-TATS seam. Tear force and hydrostatic pressure increased firstly and then decreased with the increasing of USW parameters in UAW-TATS process. Binary regression relationships were found between the USW parameters and tear force or hydrostatic pressure. Shrinkage decreased with the increasing of roller pressure and speed. Practical implications Research results can be applied to predict seam performance of waterproof clothing, reduce equipment parameters setting time and enhance product quality in industry. Originality/value A threadless production technology (USW-TATS) was proposed to improve waterproof performance and dimensional stability of outdoor clothing seams.

Waterproof Dress

Waterproof clothing was an important form of dress in the nineteenth century. The popularity and demand for waterproof garments increased toward the end of the nineteenth century due to improvements in apparel technology as well as an increase in consumption power. Until now, little research has been done to examine the design and function of these garments and the roles they played in the daily lives of people in the late nineteenth century. This research examined United States' patents between 1880 and 1895 as well as catalogs and other materials from the period to better understand the designs, functions and uses of waterproof apparel. The patents were compared with products available in the catalogs to better understand which types of garment designs were necessary and practical for consumer use.

Performance Analysis Based on Bonded Surface Designs for Stitchless Welded Products

This study selected three model designs used for air injection type welding clothes designed for insulation purposes and analyzed the performance of each design. The bending characteristics were analyzed in order to identify the flexibility of the welded areas; subsequently, the seam breaking strength and water pressure resistance were analyzed to identify the bonding strength. In addition, two types of waterproof fabric, polyurethane (PU) coated 2 layer and PU laminated 2 layer fabrics, were used for a performance analysis, according to fabric processing specifications. The circle type showed the highest flexibility in the terms of bending characteristics that influence wearability and were followed by the wave and the straight type. In terms of breaking strength, the straight type showed the highest breaking strength, followed by the wave and the circle type. The water pressure resistance analysis found that the wave type was superior to the straight type in terms of water pressure resistance. The wave type is deemed to be a design type suitable for maximizing performance, provided that the issue of stabilization in the welding production process is addressed. Looking at the bending characteristics of waterproof fabric for each specification, the laminating waterproof cloth outperformed the coated waterproof cloth in terms of flexibility. However, in terms of seam breaking strength, the coated waterproof cloth outperformed the laminated cloth. In contrast, the water pressure resistance of the laminated waterproof fabric was found to be higher than the coated waterproof fabric, leading to the conclusion that the bonding strength of the laminated waterproof fabric is higher than that of the coated waterproof fabric based on the assumption of injecting air.

공군 정비파카의 기능성 개선을 위한 실태조사

This study is designed to understand current wearing conditions of air force mechanic parkas and evaluate their functionality by examining the wearing conditions and wearers' subjective assessment. By doing so, it also intends to identify issues that require improvements; and to provide basic data for future development of air force mechanic parkas. A survey was conducted as a study methodology, and the collected 1,628 questionnaires were analyzed. Findings of this study are as follows. 1. In the usability assessment, it was found that visibility of body sides was needed to be enhanced since reflective tapes were attached only to the front and back of the body; pockets were too big, but not convenient to keep mechanic tools; the design of hiding hood was not suitable for water-proof clothing; and a new design of size-controllable hood was called for since the hood blocked eye sight. With respect to the fabric, dissatisfaction was identified with durability, cold-proof and fire-proof features. 2. In the mobility assessment, respondents showed low satisfaction with collar heights and neck girths. Mobility score was over moderate level on average, except the parka length that obstructs wearers' movement, and neck and collar size. 3. In the wearability assessment, respondents presented moderate satisfaction with pleasantness, weight, pressure and dampness. However, insulation was found unsatisfactory. Based on the result, this study proposed improvement plans on design, pattern and fabric; and is expected to serve as basic data for developing more effective and functional air force mechanic parkas.

Quality Assessment of Stored Rainwater and Its Utilization in Dhaka City, Bangladesh

Monsoons provide Bangladesh with ample rainwater. However, many regions, both rural and urban, suffer from shortage of safe drinking water. While arsenic contamination of ground water affects many rural areas, some urban areas, including Dhaka City, also lack of sufficient potable water supply due to shortage of surface water. This research explored the quality of stored rainwater as well as the feasibility of harvesting monsoon rainwater as a source of drinking water. Rainwater had been experimentally harvested at Bangladesh University of Engineering and Technology in Dhaka using a simple traditional technology. The rainwater was collected using a small catchment area (4.57 m × 4.57 m) made of water-proof cloth and a 3.2 m3 capacity ferro-cement storage tank, attached with an automatic initial flushing device, for a family having five members for four months. Initial test results indicated that the stored rainwater had a slightly higher pH value (8.1 to 8.3) and presence of total coliform after three months of storage. The traditional filtering system removed contaminants completely and the total coliforms up to 60%. This research supports the viability of traditional filtering of harvested rainwater as a promising solution to potable water shortage in Bangladesh.

Rainwater: A Potential Alternative Source for Scarce Safe Drinking and Arsenic Contaminated Water in Bangladesh

Although Bangladesh receives plenty of rainwater during its monsoon, both rural and urban areas suffer from shortages of safe drinking water during dry season. Arsenic contamination of ground water affects many rural areas, whilst some urban areas including the capital, Dhaka City, lack sufficient potable ground water to meet the demand. To cope with the problem, this research explore: the feasibility of harvesting rainwater during monsoon as a source of quality safe drinking water in Dhaka City. A questionnaire survey was conducted about potable water shortage in four slums of Dhaka City. Rainwater was collected using a non-toxic waterproof cloth as a catchment during monsoon and stored in a ferro-cement storage tank with an initial flushing device attached at the inlet of the tank. Different important physical, chemical and bacteriological parameters were tested throughout the storage period of 4 months. The efficiency of the rainwater harvesting system increased from 51% to 80% before and after installing the system. The test results were compared with the Bangladesh water quality standards. The tests have revealed slightly higher pH value (8.1 to 8.3) and enormity of color beyond the acceptable range. Although the presence of total coliform was detected after three months, traditional filtering of that stored rainwater showed a promising solution to mitigate potable water shortages in Bangladesh.

Foreword — Global Access to Health: Legal, Business, and Policy Obstacles

INTRODUCTION Thomas Jefferson - scientist, philosopher, and United States president firmly believed in the power of innovation. A bit of a tinkerer himself, he devoured new applications while serving as America's first patent examiner and often engaged in enthusiastic correspondence with hopeful inventors. He was a pioneer in the development of American patent law and shaped its attention to the utility, novelty, and non-obviousness of inventions. But Jefferson also believed that inventions were only meaningful if they were used to benefit the quality of life in society as a whole.1 In a letter to Robert Morris written in 1794, he told the inventor of waterproof cloth that his valuable discovery be truly great if the process be so cheap as it will admit to be used for the laboring part of mankind. The rich have so many resources already for taking care of themselves, that an advantage the more, if confined to them, would not excite our interest; but if it can be introduced commonly for laborers, then it becomes valuable indeed.2 Jefferson's philosophy offers a glimpse of the solution to our global struggle to address the diseases of the poor. Despite improved health and reduced mortality globally in the last half-century,3 too many people are still not being treated for these diseases.4 Millions of people in developing countries - most of them children - die every year from diseases that are preventable and treatable. A measles vaccine costs 15 cents, yet nearly 675 infants die of measles every day.5 Some 26 million children per year under the age of five are not immunized with simple, inexpensive vaccines most of us take for granted.6 The number of women at risk of death during childbirth in low-income countries compared with wealthy ones is 500 to one.7 Tuberculosis, HIV/AIDS, diarrheal diseases and childhood pneumonia, complications of pregnancy and neonatal deaths - each partially preventable with vaccines or treatable or manageable with therapeutics available in rich nations - cause 29% of all deaths in low- and middle-income countries. Every year, HIV/AIDS, malaria, and TB together kill six million people, mostly in sub-Saharan Africa and Asia.8 This is the equivalent of everyone in Los Angeles and Houston9 dying from these diseases each and every year. These tragedies persist, despite the many billions of dollars10 spent annually to develop new products to enhance and extend human life. New health solutions - drugs, vaccines, diagnostics, monitoring tools, and related platforms - are clearly needed. However, due in part to an historical lack of market incentives for the pharmaceutical industry, only 21 of the 1,556 new drugs put on the market in the three decades prior to 2004 specifically targeted neglected diseases, meaning those that disproportionately affect developing countries.11 Even when these interventions are appropriate, they quickly run into the many legal, policy and infrastructure challenges that make delivery in resource-poor countries enormously difficult. UNRIVALLED OPPORTUNITY Nevertheless, there is reason for optimism. We live in a time of unprecedented opportunity when it comes to tackling neglected diseases. This reflects a broader movement in global health that has engaged academia (including the creation of numerous global health institutes or divisions), government (including the creation of the President's Emergency Plan for AIDS Relief and the President's Malaria Initiative), as well as the developing countries themselves. The net result of this surge in resources and political will can be witnessed in the successes of the Global Fund to Fight AIDS, Tuberculosis and Malaria, and the GAVI Alliance. Mechanisms are being created to incentivize product development and ensure that the right ones will be purchased and used, and lives will be saved. The science is moving ahead as well. A growing number of universities, for-profit companies and not-for-profit research and development (R&D) initiatives house life-sciences projects that are focused on developing global health solutions. …