Water Injection System Research Articles

Exploring the benefits of hydrogen-water injection technology in internal combustion engines: A rigorous experimental study

Previous hydrogen researchers have demonstrated the great potential of hydrogen as a zero-carbon fuel and its wider operational ability to directly replace the existing fossil-fuelled internal combustion engines (ICE). Hydrogen direct-injection technology can operate at stoichiometric combustion conditions, fully eliminating the intake backfire phenomena, which has the benefit of low airflow requirements and is a suitable solution for naturally aspirated ICE platforms. However, significant challenges must be addressed when operating an H2 ICE at or near stoichiometric. These include rapid pressure rise rate, high in-cylinder gas pressure and temperature and the consequential higher engine-out NOx emissions. This study provides a comprehensive experimental analysis of the effect of water injection on a light-duty H2 engine’s performance, efficiency, burn durations and NOx emission. The engine was modified to operate with hydrogen via a centrally-mounted direct H2 injector and an intake port-mounted water injection system. The study included water vapour measurements, NOx concentrations and other exhaust gases. The practical implications of these findings are significant. The results demonstrated that the NOx emissions were reduced by 79% when the water was injected at a rate of 5 kg/h at 10 bar IMEP and 2000 rpm. This reduction in emissions, coupled with the observed decrease in cylinder pressure and the rate of pressure rise, could substantially improve engine performance and efficiency. At higher load regions, the water injection extended the maximum engine load to 24 bar IMEP and increased the engine torque output by 10%. The maximum Indicated Thermal Efficiency (ITE) increased from 41% at 16.5 bar IMEP to 42.5% at 18 bar IMEP at a lower lambda, with a corresponding reduction in the intake-air-boost pressure requirement. Of particular note, the use of water injection decreased the engine-out NOx emissions under high-load conditions by more than 55%, even at richer AFR compared to pure hydrogen operation.

Analysis of Corrosion Causes and Optimization of Corrosion Evaluation Methods for Water Injection System in Changqing JY Oilfield

Abstract Based on the corrosion characteristics of the water injection system in Changqing Oilfield, an experimental study was conducted on the corrosion of the water injection system caused by carbon dioxide, hydrogen sulfide, bacteria, and water treatment agents in the produced liquid. The main influencing factors of corrosion in the water injection system were analyzed, and it was clarified that the corrosion of the water injection system in Changqing Oilfield was mainly caused by oxygen corrosion, which also had an impact on the water quality of the injection. Combining static corrosion analysis with the introduction of pitting and dynamic corrosion rate testing methods, the average corrosion rate of JY oilfield water injection system has a positive correlation with pitting corrosion, while the average corrosion rate of clean water has a stronger correlation with pitting corrosion. The corrosion evaluation method has been optimized, providing technical basis for formulating effective anti-corrosion measures for the oilfield.

Identification of Acoustic Sources on Antares Launch Pad Using Microphone Phased Array

A microphone phased array (MPA) was mounted in the vicinity of pad 0A of Mid-Atlantic Regional Spaceport located on NASA’s Wallops Flight Facility to identify the evolution of acoustic sources from hold-down to an elevation of ∼200 ft during the launch of an Antares rocket (Northrop Grumman [NG]-19). The MPA was equipped with 70 piezo-resistive dynamic pressure sensors, a visible-band and an infrared-band camera, and a two-axis accelerometer. The noise map demonstrated an effective use of the water injection system to attenuate noise from plume impingement on the pad. They also pointed out the outlet of the exhaust duct, through which the steam and plume mixture ejected out, to be the primary noise source during a significant interval of time. A comparison with prior such measurements during the maiden launch of the Antares vehicle in 2013 showed significant attenuation of noise sources during the NG-19 launch. A strong source caused by the impingement of plume on the pad surface during the 2013 launch was found to be attenuated in 2023. The results showed the utility of an MPA in quantifying the impact of changes made to a launch pad.

Numerical Investigation of the Combustion Characteristics of a Hydrogen-Fueled Engine with Water Injection

The quest for clean, efficient engine technologies is imperative in reducing transportation’s environmental impact. Hydrogen, as a zero-emission fuel, offers significant potential for internal combustion engines but faces challenges such as optimizing engine performance and longevity. Water injection is proposed as a solution, yet its effects on engine performance require thorough investigation. This study bridges the knowledge gap by examining various water injection ratios (WIRs) and their impact on engine performance, focusing on the balance between power output and engine longevity. We identified the existence of an optimum WIR (e.g., 10% in this study), which provides peak performance with minimal adverse effects on engine performance and health. Computational simulations of a single-cylinder engine revealed how WIRs influence in-cylinder temperature, pressure, and IMEP, emphasizing the nuanced benefits of water injection. Additionally, our analysis of turbulence, through TKE and dissipation rate, deepens the understanding of combustion and fuel efficiency in hydrogen engines. This research provides valuable guidance for optimizing engine operations and paves the way for advanced water injection systems in hydrogen engines, marking a significant step towards cleaner engine technology.

CFD-based prediction of flow noise in offshore pipeline systems

Abstract The ship’s water injection system exhibits significant vibration and noise issues, necessitating the prompt implementation of targeted control measures. In this study, the simulation technique of computational fluid dynamics (CFD) combined with the finite element method and automatic matching layer method was applied to emulate the flow field environment of the outlet pipeline of a side valve in a seawater cooling system. Pulsating pressure data on the pipeline and valve’s wall were extracted from the flow field calculation and utilized as dipole noise sources and structural vibration excitations, enabling the prediction and separation of flow noise and flow-induced vibration noise in the water injection system. Leveraging the data from the flow field simulation, an analysis was conducted on the radiated noise at the side valve’s outlet, comparing the impact of different underwater depths and outlet pipe diameters on the underwater flow noise. The findings suggest that measures such as increasing the side valve’s diameter and lowering the discharge port’s underwater position can effectively reduce system flow noise, offering valuable insights for the design of noise reduction in seawater cooling systems for silent surface ships and submarines.

Mixed transportation optimization model for oilfield water injection synergizing pipeline network and trucks

The water injection network is a common method in oil extraction processes, generally characterized by high energy consumption. Therefore, the adoption of scientifically sound and rational optimization schemes is crucial. However, due to the limited injection capacity of water injection station (WIS), when their supply is less than the demand of the injection wells, trucks are used for supplementary water injection. This paper introduces an oilfield water injection method under water injection pipeline and trucks coordination transport. An optimization model for oilfield water injection in this mixed transportation mode is established to address the supply-demand imbalance in the water injection network. The study uses a specific oilfield water injection system as a case study to validate the applicability of the mixed transportation water injection model (MTWI-Model) compared to the conventional water injection model (CWI-Model). The findings indicate that when only CWI-Model is used, the water volume from the injection station cannot meet the demands of the injection wells, leading to the cessation of some wells and potential overload of pumps in the station, thus affecting the normal operation of the water injection station and ultimately the oil recovery rate. Furthermore, the paper compares the optimization results of the mixed transportation model under two scenarios: fixed and non-fixed water intake points (namely MTWI-FP-Model and MTWI-NFP-Model). The results show that the mixed transportation mode with non-fixed water intake points is more economical, saving a daily cost of 632.28 Yuan/d compared to the fixed point scenario.

Separate-layer balanced waterflooding development technology for thick and complex carbonate reservoirs in the Middle East

Based on the waterflooding development in carbonate reservoirs in the Middle East, in order to solve the problem of the poor development effects caused by commingled injection and production, taking the thick bioclastic limestone reservoirs of Cretaceous in Iran-Iraq as an example, this paper proposes a balanced waterflooding development technology for thick and complex carbonate reservoirs. This technology includes the fine division of development units by concealed baffles and barriers, the combination of multi well type and multi well pattern, and the construction of balanced water injection and recovery system. Thick carbonate reservoirs in Iran-Iraq are characterized by extremely vertical heterogeneity, development of multi-genesis ultra-high permeability zones, and highly concealed baffles and barriers. Based on the technologies of identification, characterization, and sealing evaluation for concealed baffles and barriers, the balanced waterflooding development technology is proposed, and three types of balanced waterflooding development modes/techniques are formed, namely, conventional stratigraphic framework, fine stratigraphic framework, and deepened stratigraphic framework. Numerical simulations show that this technology is able to realize a fine and efficient waterflooding development to recover, in a balanced manner, the reserves of thick and complex carbonate reservoirs in Iran and Iraq. The proposed technology provides a reference for the development optimization of similar reservoirs.

Enhancement of the precooling system performance for aviation engines by volatile liquid injection

Water injection precooling in aviation engines is a promising technique that can enhance performance, improve efficiency, and reduce emissions, especially at high altitudes and Mach numbers. However, its implementation in aviation engines requires careful engineering and design considerations due to the restricted space available for installation and operation, as well as the challenges posed by high inlet air velocities. Therefore, the present study experimentally and numerically evaluates the effectiveness of spray precooling for jet engines and introduces novel insights into optimizing droplet dynamics and nozzle configurations in short, narrow spray ducts under high inlet air temperature and velocity. The impact of water spray cooling on the uniformity of inlet air is also investigated for nonuniform air temperature conditions, which has yet to be mentioned in previous research. An experimental configuration has been devised and implemented to investigate water injection precooling within a rectangular spray duct. The evaporative cooling process through the spray duct and the injected droplet trajectories were predicted using an Eulerian-Lagrangian computational fluid dynamics (CFD) model. The CFD model was verified using the present experiments, and there is a strong correlation between the experimental data and simulation findings, with an average discrepancy of less than 7%. The effectiveness of the water injection system is investigated at different operating parameters such as nozzle arrangements, coolant type, droplet size, and variable velocities. The results showed that sprays characterized by small mean diameters and high initial droplet velocity significantly enhance spray cooling performance. Changing the nozzle configurations impacts spray cooling performance considerably, with the cross-outside case providing the best results. Notwithstanding its advantageous evaporation rate, introducing methanol via injection does not yield significant enhancements. Water injection is crucial in achieving a more homogeneous temperature distribution by reducing temperature disparities and promoting mixing and evaporation.

Design of Intelligent Control Systems for Layered Water Injections in Oilfields

With rapid socio-economic growth and increased energy demand, exploration and exploitation of oil and gas resources have become crucial. Long-term exploitation leads to problems such as pressure drop and production reduction in oil fields, and water injection technology has become a common method to improve these problems. The traditional direct water injection for oil extraction has problems such as high injection cost and low oil recovery efficiency. Therefore, an intelligent control system for different oilfield reservoirs is needed. This study focuses on the layered water injection intelligent system based on advanced sensor technology, digital signal processing and intelligent algorithms. The article reviews the advantages of layered water injection system and the current research status, designs an intelligent control structure including hardware circuits and modular software processes, and adopts adaptive particle swarm optimization algorithm as the core of intelligent control.

Evaluation of compatibility between formation and Injection water into the Reservoir Rock

Scale deposition represents a critical challenge encountered in water injection systems. The objective of this study is to assess the compatibility between the candidate smart water and the formation water in an oil reservoir rock sample. To achieve this, water samples were collected and analyzed to evaluate the extent of deposit formation under varying temperature and pressure conditions. Additionally, the study also examined the combined influence of temperature and pressure on deposit formation. The results indicated that as the temperature increased, there was a decrease in the concentration of sulfate in the seawater. Taking into account the low concentration of barium (zero) in seawater and the unchanged strontium concentration, the decrease in sulfate concentration can be attributed to the deposition of calcium sulfate. Contrarily, in various ratios of smart water, the sulfate concentration has shown an increase with rising temperatures. This can be attributed to the transformation of sulfite present in the formation water into sulfate due to the influence of temperature. The presence of a low concentration of barium in the formation water resulted in insignificant changes in sulfate concentration due to the precipitation of barium sulfate. Additionally, despite the high concentration of strontium, strontium sulfate deposition did not occur, possibly due to the solubility product constant. The analysis of different smart water ratios under various pressures at ambient temperature revealed that pressure had a minimal effect on the solubility of sulfate and calcium salts. During the sediment analysis, no evidence of strontium sulfate sediment formation was observed. However, the analysis indicated a high possibility of iron sulfide and iron oxide deposits forming. Ultimately, under the experimental conditions, significant sediment formation was not observed.

Experimental study of sizes and velocities of the droplets produced by water injection system with compressed-air atomizer into the intake manifold of an internal combustion engine applying the optic methods

Experimental study of sizes and velocities of the droplets produced by water injection system with compressed-air atomizer into the intake manifold of an internal combustion engine applying the optic methods

Design of water nozzle shape and structure optimization for eccentric injection mandrel in water injection wells

AbstractInjection mandrel is one of the key components to control the water injection rate of each layer in the layered injection process in the oilfield. The imbalance between the layers can be changed by an optimized injection mandrel to control the appropriate injection rate. This study introduces an approach to optimize water injection in oilfields, focusing on a new eccentric injection mandrel with adjustable flat nozzles. Firstly, computational fluid dynamics (CFD) simulations were carried out using FLUENT software to model and analyze the flow characteristics of the injection mandrel. The simulation results were validated through experimental comparisons, demonstrating excellent consistency. Secondly, the nozzle shapes were identified and optimized. The semicircle nozzle demonstrating superior regulation performance due to its smallest differential pressure and a robust linear relationship between flow rate and opening degree. Finally, orthogonal tests are designed for three influencing factors of the eccentric injection mandrel: number of injection holes, injection hole diameter, and nozzle shape. The simulation results show that the number of injection holes is 36, the diameter of injection holes is 3.2 mm, and the eccentric injection mandrel has relatively better performance. After optimization, the differential pressure between the inlet and outlet is reduced by 57.14%, and the average shear stress on the fluid is reduced by 3.88%. This innovative methodology, employing CFD simulations and orthogonal tests, offers precise water injection rate control, reducing water wastage, and optimizing energy consumption in water injection systems.

Development of a CNN-based fault detection system for a real water injection centrifugal pump

Large-sized centrifugal pumps play a major role in produced water injection systems in oil and gas production. Monitoring this equipment operation is vital to guarantee its efficiency and to reduce the occurrence of unplanned downtimes. The main goal of this work was to develop a fault detection system based on artificial intelligence (AI) algorithms for a water injection centrifugal pump located at an oil and gas company’s offshore platform. The convolutional neural network (CNN) was the main algorithm investigated in this work. However, other machine learning techniques (i.e., support vector machines, random forest, and multilayer perceptrons) were used to compare against the results achieved by the CNN. A data-driven methodology was proposed for the stages of exploratory data analysis (EDA), data labeling, automatic hyperparameter optimization, training and testing of the chosen models. The results showed that the proposed methodology was effective and applicable. The CNN and the support vector machine (SVM) models presented interesting performances. The CNN model returned 93.7% precision and 59.8% recall, whereas the SVM model returned 84.6% precision and 66.7% recall. The challenges related to the use of a real dataset were also discussed, emphasizing the data labeling step. Applying the k-means clustering technique proved to be useful for labeling the data instances.

Numerical assessment of water injection for improved thermal efficiency and emissions control in a medium-duty hydrogen engine for transportation applications

The existing political environment and the growing worries about climate change have resulted in the imposition of stringent regulations on traditional propulsion systems reliant on fossil fuels. While new technologies are being investigated to substitute internal combustion engines, their current technological advancement necessitates further development and refinement in order to emerge as a viable alternative to the conventional internal combustion engine. The utilization of hydrogen-powered internal combustion engines has showcased their capacity to rapidly achieve complete decarbonization in the transportation industry. However, these engines continue to encounter limitations regarding their operational range that need to be addressed. The utilization of EGR for controlling combustion instabilities and mitigating NOx formation still has significant limitations in operating at high engine loads, mainly affecting the boost requirements for reaching high power densities. The present work evaluates the potential of substituting the EGR dilution with a water injection system for reaching full load operation on a conventional diesel engine, assuming the minimum modifications required for it to work under H2 combustion. The study is carried out assuming a multi-cylinder engine representing the medium- to high-duty transport sector. The evaluation includes a comparison of the engine performance and emissions obtained when using EGR and water injection at full load, comparing the requirements of the boost system for both strategies to reach power densities of 24 bar of BMEP equivalent to modern diesel applications. The results show that WI allows for significantly reduced boost pressure requirements lowering intake pressure by up to 1 bar, while achieving very similar engine efficiency and a reduction of NOx emissions around 80%, resulting a similar effectiveness compared with EGR. Additionally, WI provides additional prevention against undesired autoignition.

Hydrocarbon Wealth Management: Rejuvenation of a Brown Field through Analysis of Existing Water Injection System

A private company acquired operatorship of a brown oil field in 2020 from a National Oil Company (NOC) of India to enhance production from the field. Due to Covid-19 outbreak, operatorship was transferred in 2021. Soon as the company took over the operation, it met with surprises in terms of a smaller number of flowing oil wells due to operational reasons. However, the most disturbing was the significantly lower field water injection rate than reported by the NOC. The company undertook pressure measurement in wells to find reasons for production non-sustainability and reduced injectivity. Based on poor analysis of pressure data, the best injection well in the largest producing reservoir was interpreted to be hydrodynamically unconnected with the up-dip producers and recommended for disconnection from injection network by subsurface team to increase water injection rate from the remaining injectors. The study team reviewed the geological model and categorically ruled out discontinuity of the sand body with its up-dip producers. The Management ordered third-party review to resolve uncertainty and suggest remedial measures to improve water injection performance. The review of historical production, injection, pressure data and movement of oil water contact with time has improved the understanding of the inter and intra reservoir pressure communications in the field. The data synthesis has confirmed sand/hydrodynamic continuity between producers and injectors. Performance review of injection wells and the Water Injection Plant (WIP) have brought out bottlenecks in the system. The poor-quality injection water and the lapses in upkeeping of WIP were the primary reasons for loss of injectivity. WIP revamping and replacement of the existing oversized micron filter with smaller size have been recommended. To ensure uninterrupted water injection, conversion of one injector to pilot dump flooder has been suggested, a first of kind in India.

Preliminary design of the suppressive containment system based on HPR1000

The current HPR1000 has a high construction cost and weak economic competitiveness due to its complex system and large containment. This study proposes a conceptual design of an advanced containment system based on HPR1000, which aims at reducing the construction cost of nuclear power plants without reducing their safety. In the design, the In-containment Refueling Water Storage Tank (IRWST) and spray system were discarded, and the space of the double containment vessel was used to create an annular cavity pool (ACP). The transient pressurization in the containment caused in the early stages of the accident can be quickly suppressed by ACP instead of the traditional large-volume suppression concept. And due to the significant condensation of steam within the ACP water, the transportation of air into the ACP results in a reduction in the air mass fraction in the vicinity of the passive containment heat removal system (PCHR) located within the containment structure. This phenomenon subsequently leads to an enhancement in heat transfer performance. In addition, ACP also serves as the water source for the safety injection system, the reactor cavity water injection system, and the core replacement system. Compared with HPR1000, the system of the preliminary design has been greatly simplified, and the size of the containment vessel has been reduced by nearly 47%. The simulation of the large-break loss-of-coolant accident (LBLOCA) scenario has been conducted to examine the response of the containment system, specifically focusing on the performance of the safety injection system and suppression system. The results show that the integrity of the containment and core was ensured throughout the accident, and there was a safety margin.

Applications of automated Petrel workflows in 3D reservoir geologic modelling – A case study

AbstractMature fields have been playing a significant role in the oil and gas realm recently, and redevelopment and optimization efforts are being made globally to prolong the lifetime of these resources. The aim of this study is to showcase the benefits of hydrocarbon reservoir modelling, with a special focus on various aspects of Petrel workflows.This article is a direct continuation of Nemes et al. (2021), which described the Phase 1 geomodel of the same field described in this study. The Phase 2 geomodel – the scope of the current article – is based on a significantly more complete, more detailed, and fundamentally rebuilt dataset compared to Phase 1. The seismic and petrophysical interpretations were updated, and additional data sources were incorporated into the analysis.The geomodel was created in Schlumberger's Petrel software, and during the building of it, a comprehensive 800-plus-step, full-cycle, automated workflow was outlined. The created workflow makes the model update faster by a minimum of five times, makes it more transparent and decreases the risk of human error.The created workflow describes the entire geomodelling process from data loading, via surface adjustments, structural modelling, and property modelling, to a closing of the loop with volumetric calculation. The whole workflow can be rerun easily, and beside the updates made to the geomodel, a full range of quality-check supporting calculations and visualizations were created in order to provide the user with full control.The geomodel showcased here is a key building block of the ongoing and planned development and redevelopment activities in the field, serves as a tool for well and workover planning, water injection system adjustments and a direct input to dynamic simulation, and also provides direct inputs to the documentation of an updated field development plan.

Optimizing water injection system facilities based on the digital model

Optimizing water injection system facilities based on the digital model

Downhole parameter prediction method based on multi-layer water injection model and historical data-based model parameter identification

Wireless communication has become a preferred direction for the development of layered water injection tools due to its low cost and high reliability. However, the wireless system relies on the underground battery for power supply，and each communication will consume a significant amount of energy. In order to save energy consumption, the wireless system adopts the intermittent sleep communication mode, with intervals of usually more than one month. During the idle time of communication, the downhole parameters such as pressure and flowrate will change as the pressure and flowrate at the wellhead. Therefore, it is crucial to predict downhole parameters based on the wellhead pressure and flowrate. In this study, a downhole parameter prediction method based on multi-layer water injection model is proposed. A multilayer injection prediction model was established based on the hydraulic analysis of the tubing string, and the model parameters were identified and updated using the historical data uploaded each time. The pressure and flow rate measured at the wellhead were used as inputs to the model, and the recursive relationship between layers in the multilayer model was utilized to predict downhole parameters for each layer. A model parameter optimization method based on time-weighting is proposed in order to address the gradual changes in model parameters during water injection. This method assigns greater weight to more recent historical data, resulting in optimized model parameters. Experimental results show that the proposed method can effectively predict the flowrate and pressure of each layer, with a prediction deviation of less than 5% F.S., which provides technical support for the application and popularization of the wireless layered water injection system.

Green inhibitors evaluation for the application in oil gathering centers, effluent water, seawater and aquifer water injection systems

Green inhibitors evaluation for the application in oil gathering centers, effluent water, seawater and aquifer water injection systems