Water Framework Directive Demands Research Articles

Catchments of German surface water bodies

AbstractThe European Water Framework Directive demands to assess and report the chemical and ecological status of water bodies (WB). Linking their status to drivers and pressures and deriving suitable mitigation measures require knowledge of the shape and area of WB catchments. We derived a network of 26 570 WB catchments in Germany using the hydrologically‐defined drainage basins of the German federal states. We established a network of 338 149 drainage basins. This network underwent plausibility checks and a validation with the catchment areas of 348 monitoring stations across Germany. To this network, we assigned the longest intersecting or the next downstream WB code. To account for geometric inaccuracies we revised spurious intersections resulting in splittings and cycles in the WB network. As WB may be ecologically but not hydrologically well defined, we split them at confluences and intersections. The network of drainage basins matched the monitoring stations with a Nash‐Sutcliffe efficiency of 1.00. The final WB network contained 11 005 out of the 11 586 original WBs longer than 1 m. The corresponding local catchment areas range from <<0.0001 to 446 km2, with a median of 10 km2. The dataset combines the requirements of hydrological and ecological modelling applications at basin or national scales with the needs of the EU reporting which can foster their acceptance by state authorities and river‐basin management.

Biomonitoring of metals by aquatic mosses in a mining region

The aim of this work is to estimate background concentrations of organometallic compounds, such as tributyltin (TBT), dibutyltin (DBT), monobutyltin (MBT), triphenyltin (TPhT), diphenyltin (DPhT), monophenyltin (MPhT), methylmercury (MeHg), inorganic mercury (iHg) and diethyllead (Et2Pb) in the aquatic environment at the French national scale.Both water and sediment samples were collected all over the country, resulting in 152 water samples and 123 sediment samples collected at 181 sampling points. Three types of surface water bodies were investigated: rivers (140 sites), lakes (19 sites) and coastal water (42 sites), spread along the 11 French river basins. The choice of sites was made on the basis of previous investigation results and the following target criteria: reference, urban sites, agricultural and industrial areas. The analytical method was properly validated for both matrices prior to analysis, resulting in low limits of quantification (LOQ), good precision and linearity in agreement with the Water Framework Directive demands. The results were first evaluated as a function of their river basins, type of surrounding pressure and water bodies. Later, background concentrations at the French national scale were established for both water and sediment matrices, as well as their threshold, i.e., the concentration that distinguishes background from anomalies or contaminations. Background concentrations in water are ranging between <0.04–0.14 ng Hg. L−1 for MeHg, <0.14–2.10 ng Hg. L−1 for iHg, <1.0–8.43 ng Pb. L−1 for Et2Pb and 0.49–151 ng Sn. L−1, <0.08–3.04 ng Sn. L−1 and <0.08–0.25 ng Sn. L−1 for MBT, DBT and TBT, respectively. For sediments, background concentrations were set as <0.09–1.11 ng Hg. g−1 for MeHg, <0.06–24.3 ng Pb. g−1 for Et2Pb and <1.4–13.4 ng Sn. g−1, <0.82–8.54 ng Sn. g−1, <0.25–1.16 ng Sn. g−1 and <0.08–0.61 ng Sn. g−1 for MBT, DBT, TBT and DPhT, respectively. TBT occurs in higher concentrations than the available environmental protection values in 24 and 38 sampling sites for both water and sediment samples, respectively. Other phenyltins (MPhT and TPhT) did not occur above their LOQ and therefore no background was possible to establish. Throughout this work, which is the first assessment of background concentrations for organometallic compounds at the French national level ever being published, it was possible to conclude that over the last 10–20 years organotin concentrations in French river basins have decreased while MeHg concentration remained stable.

Assessment of background concentrations of organometallic compounds (methylmercury, ethyllead and butyl- and phenyltin) in French aquatic environments

The aim of this work is to estimate background concentrations of organometallic compounds, such as tributyltin (TBT), dibutyltin (DBT), monobutyltin (MBT), triphenyltin (TPhT), diphenyltin (DPhT), monophenyltin (MPhT), methylmercury (MeHg), inorganic mercury (iHg) and diethyllead (Et2Pb) in the aquatic environment at the French national scale.Both water and sediment samples were collected all over the country, resulting in 152 water samples and 123 sediment samples collected at 181 sampling points. Three types of surface water bodies were investigated: rivers (140 sites), lakes (19 sites) and coastal water (42 sites), spread along the 11 French river basins. The choice of sites was made on the basis of previous investigation results and the following target criteria: reference, urban sites, agricultural and industrial areas. The analytical method was properly validated for both matrices prior to analysis, resulting in low limits of quantification (LOQ), good precision and linearity in agreement with the Water Framework Directive demands. The results were first evaluated as a function of their river basins, type of surrounding pressure and water bodies. Later, background concentrations at the French national scale were established for both water and sediment matrices, as well as their threshold, i.e., the concentration that distinguishes background from anomalies or contaminations. Background concentrations in water are ranging between <0.04–0.14 ng Hg. L−1 for MeHg, <0.14–2.10 ng Hg. L−1 for iHg, <1.0–8.43 ng Pb. L−1 for Et2Pb and 0.49–151 ng Sn. L−1, <0.08–3.04 ng Sn. L−1 and <0.08–0.25 ng Sn. L−1 for MBT, DBT and TBT, respectively. For sediments, background concentrations were set as <0.09–1.11 ng Hg. g−1 for MeHg, <0.06–24.3 ng Pb. g−1 for Et2Pb and <1.4–13.4 ng Sn. g−1, <0.82–8.54 ng Sn. g−1, <0.25–1.16 ng Sn. g−1 and <0.08–0.61 ng Sn. g−1 for MBT, DBT, TBT and DPhT, respectively. TBT occurs in higher concentrations than the available environmental protection values in 24 and 38 sampling sites for both water and sediment samples, respectively. Other phenyltins (MPhT and TPhT) did not occur above their LOQ and therefore no background was possible to establish. Throughout this work, which is the first assessment of background concentrations for organometallic compounds at the French national level ever being published, it was possible to conclude that over the last 10–20 years organotin concentrations in French river basins have decreased while MeHg concentration remained stable.

Contribution of the multi-attribute value theory to conflict resolution in groundwater management – application to the Mancha Oriental groundwater system, Spain

Abstract. The implementation of the EU Water Framework Directive demands participatory water resource management approaches. Decision making in groundwater quantity and quality management is complex because of the existence of many independent actors, heterogeneous stakeholder interests, multiple objectives, different potential policies, and uncertain outcomes. Conflicting stakeholder interests have often been identified as an impediment to the realisation and success of water regulations and policies. The management of complex groundwater systems requires the clarification of stakeholders' positions (identifying stakeholder preferences and values), improving transparency with respect to outcomes of alternatives, and moving the discussion from the selection of alternatives towards the definition of fundamental objectives (value-thinking approach), which facilitates negotiation. The aims of the study are to analyse the potential of the multi-attribute value theory for conflict resolution in groundwater management and to evaluate the benefit of stakeholder incorporation into the different stages of the planning process, to find an overall satisfying solution for groundwater management. The research was conducted in the Mancha Oriental groundwater system (Spain), subject to intensive use of groundwater for irrigation. A complex set of objectives and attributes was defined, and the management alternatives were created by a combination of different fundamental actions, considering different implementation stages and future changes in water resource availability. Interviews were conducted with representative stakeholder groups using an interactive platform, showing simultaneously the consequences of changes in preferences to the alternative ranking. Results show that the approval of alternatives depends strongly on the combination of measures and the implementation stages. Uncertainties in the results were notable, but did not influence the alternative ranking heavily. The expected reduction in future groundwater resources by climate change increases the conflict potential. The implementation of the method in a very complex case study, with many conflicting objectives and alternatives and uncertain outcomes, including future scenarios under water limiting conditions, illustrates the potential of the method for supporting management decisions.

Water chemistry in 179 randomly selected Swedish headwater streams related to forest production, clear-felling and climate.

From a policy perspective, it is important to understand forestry effects on surface waters from a landscape perspective. The EU Water Framework Directive demands remedial actions if not achieving good ecological status. In Sweden, 44 % of the surface water bodies have moderate ecological status or worse. Many of these drain catchments with a mosaic of managed forests. It is important for the forestry sector and water authorities to be able to identify where, in the forested landscape, special precautions are necessary. The aim of this study was to quantify the relations between forestry parameters and headwater stream concentrations of nutrients, organic matter and acid-base chemistry. The results are put into the context of regional climate, sulphur and nitrogen deposition, as well as marine influences. Water chemistry was measured in 179 randomly selected headwater streams from two regions in southwest and central Sweden, corresponding to 10 % of the Swedish land area. Forest status was determined from satellite images and Swedish National Forest Inventory data using the probabilistic classifier method, which was used to model stream water chemistry with Bayesian model averaging. The results indicate that concentrations of e.g. nitrogen, phosphorus and organic matter are related to factors associated with forest production but that it is not forestry per se that causes the excess losses. Instead, factors simultaneously affecting forest production and stream water chemistry, such as climate, extensive soil pools and nitrogen deposition, are the most likely candidates The relationships with clear-felled and wetland areas are likely to be direct effects.

GROWTH INHIBITION, THE USE OF ADVANCED OXIDATION AND THE REDUCTION OF NUTRIENT SOLUTION DISCHARGE IN PRACTICE

The EU Water Framework Directive demands a sound ecological and chemical quality for ground and surface waters. The Dutch greenhouse industry is on track towards a sustainable water management with the aim of a zero-emission of nutrients and plant protection products (PPP) in the year 2027. Growth inhibition, especially in rose cultivation, is a major reason for discharge of drain solution in soilless growing systems. Previous research on laboratory scale has shown the benefits of advanced oxidation process (here H2O2 + UV)) as a water treatment method to eliminate growth inhibiting factors. The next step is implementation in practice. Two paths have been explored (i) an endurance test on a cut rose nursery and (ii) monitoring the quantity of water flows in 12 nurseries with gerberas, roses, green peppers, cucumber or tomatoes, which were applying a combination of H2O2 and UV as AOP. In the cut rose experiment, no differences in crop yield were found between the treatments, despite of growth inhibition in the bioassay. The results from this trial led us to make the conclusion that for a period longer than a year, not more than a minimal discharge of drain water is necessary to avoid growth inhibition in a rose crop. Participation of the growers in the monitoring group using AOP led to a greater awareness of their water use and the emission flows on the nurseries, an incentive to learn from each other and willingness to try new things out. The quantities of water flows in the different nurseries have been compared. The average drain water discharge in 2011 has decreased with 45% compared to 2010. The calculated nitrogen emission was 157 and 86 kg N.ha-1, respectively for 2010 and 2011. These discharge figures were compared to model calculations, which calculate nursery-specific discharge based on sodium accumulation only. The model predicted an average discharge of 104 m3 in 2010 and 88 m3 in 2011. Effective doses of AOP for the prevention of growth inhibition are 15-25 mg.l-1 H2O2 and 100-250 mJ.cm-2 UV. With the use of AOP, the growers were more confident in the quality of the irrigation water. At one nursery, AOP was the ultimate solution for the serious growth inhibition problems.

GOOD IRRIGATION WATER ON PROPAGATION COMPANIES TO AVOID EMISSION OF NUTRIENTS AND CROP PROTECTION AGENTS

The propagation sector demands a very high quality of irrigation water to avoid negative growth effects and diseases. Discharge of nutrient solution is sometimes used to avoid risks for the crop. The project “Good Irrigation Water” aims to develop sustainable water management and technology for nurseries in greenhouse horti¬culture. The underlying aim is to reduce the emission of nutrients and crop protection agents and to meet the EU Water Framework Directive demands. Within the project quality standards of the irrigation water were drawn up and critical values of these standards were described. Wherever knowledge was lacking, critical limits were established by measuring sets of four levels in bioassays under laboratory conditions. Concerning potentially harmful substances, the tested materials were a disinfectant (sodium hypochlorite), two organic compounds (POW-humic and fulvo acids and coir chips), a growth control agent (Alar) and a surfactant as used in rockwool substrate. Sodium hypochlorite inhibited growth in the bioassays from 45 mg/L on and Alar (daminozide) reduced growth of seedlings from 45 mg/L on. The organic substances with TOC-levels from 0 to 540 mg/L and surfactant with levels from 0 to 100% gave no growth inhibition. A subsequent series of tests showed that advanced oxidation (AOX; the combination of UV light and an oxidizer) is not suitable to destruct sodium hypochlorite or POW humus or the exudate of coir chips when applied in practical UVc/oxidizer doses (up to 250 mJ/cm2 and 1 mmol/L oxidizer). Surfactant with a high dose peroxide (30 mg/L) and 240 mJ/cm2 UVc is broken down for up to 45%. AOX did not readily destruct growth control agents. The concentrations of the oxidant were too low for the entire oxidation of the carbon compounds. With a higher concentration of oxidizer it seems there is still room for an improved breakdown of these retardants.

Supporting decision making under uncertainty: Development of a participatory integrated model for water management in the middle Guadiana river basin

Following the Integrated Water Resources Management approach, the European Water Framework Directive demands Member States to develop water management plans at the catchment level. Those plans have to integrate the different interests and must be developed with stakeholder participation. To face these requirements, managers need tools to assess the impacts of possible management alternatives on natural and socio-economic systems. These tools should ideally be able to address the complexity and uncertainties of the water system, while serving as a platform for stakeholder participation. The objective of our research was to develop a participatory integrated assessment model, based on the combination of a crop model, an economic model and a participatory Bayesian network, with an application in the middle Guadiana sub-basin, in Spain. The methodology is intended to capture the complexity of water management problems, incorporating the relevant sectors, as well as the relevant scales involved in water management decision making. The integrated model has allowed us testing different management, market and climate change scenarios and assessing the impacts of such scenarios on the natural system (crops), on the socio-economic system (farms) and on the environment (water resources). Finally, this integrated assessment modelling process has allowed stakeholder participation, complying with the main requirements of current European water laws.

ADVANCED OXIDATION TO ELIMINATE GROWTH INHIBITION AND TO DEGRADE PLANT PROTECTION PRODUCTS IN A RECIRCULATING NUTRIENT SOLUTION IN ROSE CULTIVATION

The EU Water Framework Directive demands a sound ecological and chemical basis for ground and surface waters. This has motivated the Dutch greenhouse industry to seek more sustainable water management procedures which will enable a zero-emission of nutrients and plant protection products (PPP) in the year 2027. Although closed soilless growing systems are widely applied in The Netherlands, it appears that discharge of nutrients varies between 5 and 40%. Discharge based on salinity is only a minor part, up to 15%. In rose cultivation, growth inhibition is the major reason for discharge of the nutrient solution. Former research could not find a proper reason for growth inhibition, but it is most likely of organic origin. The water treatment method of advanced oxidation, at which first hydrogen peroxide is added, directly followed by an exposure to UV-C light (200-280 nm), is known to degrade large organic molecules. Therefore this method has been investigated to eliminate growth inhibition and also to degrade PPPs. Among all methods advanced oxidation has been a first choice because many rose growers already possess a UV installation for elimination of pathogens from the recirculating solution. Trials with advanced oxidation have been performed at two rose nurseries at which the dosages of hydrogen peroxide (0-25 mg/L) and UV lighting (0-900 mJ/cm2) have been varied to search for indications for elimination of growth inhibition and the degradation of PPPs. After treatment samples were taken to test for growth inhibition of the solution in a bioassay, Phytotoxkit; the chemical composition; the residual amount of PPPs and the presence of micro-organisms. Preliminary results show that (1) growth inhibition exists and can be decreased, (2) plant protection products can be degraded, (3) pathogens have been eliminated and (4) composition of the nutrient solution is unchanged except for iron.

A new macroinvertebrate-based multimetric index (I2M2) to evaluate ecological quality of French wadeable streams fulfilling the WFD demands: A taxonomical and trait approach

Following the Water Framework Directive (WFD) requirements, we designed a new multimetric index (I2M2) for the invertebrate-based ecological assessment of French wadeable streams. This index should be able to identify impaired reaches for 17 anthropogenic pressure categories potentially leading to water quality alteration or habitat degradation. Based on a national database, we defined an iterative procedure to select taxonomy- and trait-based metrics exhibiting the best trade-off between (i) high discrimination efficiency, (ii) low specificity and (iii) high stability in least impaired conditions. The I2M2, defined as the best combination of such metrics, has been composed by: (i) Shannon diversity index, (ii) original ASPT score, (iii) the relative abundance of polyvoltine taxa, (iv) the relative abundance of ovoviviparous taxa and (v) taxonomic richness. The I2M2 was tested against an independent data set. It exhibited good and robust pressure–impact relationship for all the pressure categories, correctly identifying in average 82% of reaches impaired by water quality alterations or habitat degradation. The I2M2 significantly improved the detection of impaired reaches by at least 17% for nitrogen compounds and up to 35% for organic micropollutants and clogging risk, when compared to the normalized French biotic index (IBGN). The I2M2 has been proposed for future use in the national biomonitoring of wadeable reaches in the context of the WFD implementation.

How to assess hydromorphology? A comparison of Ukrainian and German approaches

Recently, the Ukrainian Western Bug water authorities developed a national field survey to assess the quality of river habitats. The Ukrainian government already cooperates with EU member states along transboundary rivers and also orientates itself towards the European Water Framework Directive (WFD). As a future application for EU membership is feasible, the water authorities started to implement WFD criteria into their national survey schemes including the assessment of rivers’ hydromorphology. This article compares two different hydromorphological survey methods to identify similarities and differences of the classification approaches with regard to the conformity of obtained outputs with the WFD demands. The field surveys, the Ukrainian (UA-FS) and the German (LAWA-FS), were applied in parallel on 14 river sections along the Western Bug River and parts of its tributaries. Results show a wide range of conformity, but also several differences between and gaps within all methods. The UA-FS generally lacks the idea of reference condition in rivers’ hydromorphology and the definition of different stream types or near-natural land uses. The UA-FS and the LAWA-FS approaches are similar with respect to their incorporated compartments and most main parameters, but differ in definition and interpretation of specific functional units and single parameters. Greatest similarities down to single parameters exist in aspects of land use, bank vegetation, currents diversity, and within-stream variation of water depths. Differences include the assessment and interpretation of lateral erosion, sinuosity, type and depth of profile, substrate diversity, as well as special structures of bank and riverbed. Overall, the LAWA-FS is more conservative in its rating than the UA-FS. Still, UA-FS can be regarded as an important improvement for a systematic and reliable monitoring of river hydromorphology in the Ukraine that will help to successfully engage with both the integrated water resources management and the WFD harmonisation process in the future.

Instream physical habitat modelling types: an analysis as stream hydromorphological modelling tools for EU water resource managers

The introduction of the EU Water Framework Directive (WFD) is providing member state water resource managers with significant challenges in relation to meeting the deadline for ‘Good Ecological Status’ by 2015. Overall, instream physical habitat modelling approaches have advantages and disadvantages as management tools for member states in relation to the requirements of the WFD, but due to their different model structures they are distinct in their data needs, transferability, user-friendliness and presentable outputs. Water resource managers need information on what approaches will best suit their situations. This paper analyses the potential of different methods available for water managers to assess hydrological and geomorphological impacts on the habitats of stream biota, as requested by the WFD. The review considers both conventional and new advanced research-based instream physical habitat models. In parametric and non-parametric regression models, model assumptions are often not satisfied and the models are difficult to transfer to other regions. Research-based methods such as the artificial neural networks and individual-based modelling have promising potential as water management tools, but require large amounts of data and the model structure is complex. It is concluded that the use of habitat suitability indices (HSIs) and fuzzy rules in hydraulic–habitat modelling are the most ready model types to satisfy WFD demands. These models are well documented, transferable, user-friendly and have flexible data needs. They can easily be implemented in new regions using expert information or different types of local data. Furthermore, they are easily presentable to stakeholders and have the potential to be applied over large spatial scales. Integral care must be taken in the use of appropriate HSIs as these are the most sensitive part of the modelling and inaccurate results will be gained if not correctly formulated. If representative HSIs are not available, fuzzy rule-based modelling is recommended, but care must also be taken in the designing of the rule sets. For larger-scale modelling or when only few field data are available, generalized habitat models hold promise for quantifying habitat suitability based on average stream characteristics.

Within-stream variability of benthic invertebrate samples and EU Water Framework Directive assessment results

The EU Water Framework Directive (WFD) demands for an integrated biological assessment of surface water bodies. The assessment should use “Biological Quality Elements” as indicators and be based on comparing the observed biota with stream type specifi c reference condition biota to refl ect the impact of various stressors. Moreover, the WFD demands that restoration measures must be taken whenever the Ecological Quality Class (EQC) is “Moderate” or worse. Therefore, it is important to know the reliability of assessment results in order to judge whether an expensive restoration measure is justifi ed or not. The degree of uncertainty is linked with the variability of the data. The aim of the present study was to investigate the variability of benthic invertebrate samples of running waters. In 26 mid-sized streams in Germany, two samples were taken following a slightly modifi ed STAR/AQEM protocol (NTotal = 52). The STAR/AQEM protocol (Furse et al. 2006, STAR consortium 2003) is the result of two successive EU-funded projects, which aimed to develop a standardised macroinvertebrate sampling protocol and assessment system for running waters (Furse et al. 2006, Hering et al. 2003). STAR/AQEM multi-habitat sampling is based on 20 sampling units, which are distributed proportional to the estimated microhabitat covers at a sampling site. The two samples of each stream were taken at sites which were relatively close to one another (100 to 650 m) and had similar structural parameters, hydromorphology and physical/chemical parameters. Thus, it was expected that biocoenoses at both sites and assessment results should be similar. However, the results showed that samples differed in terms of number of taxa and abundances. These differences caused deviations in metric results, including the Multimetric Index (MMI) and its constituent core metrics, such as the percentage of EPT-Taxa (EPT [%]) or number of EPTCBO-Taxa (EPTCBO). In 10 of 26 cases the differences in metric assessment results led to different ecological quality classes (EQCs). In order to quantify uncertainty in assessment results, the STARBUGS simulation software was used. By simulating metric scores based on the observed sampling variance in the present data set, this software calculates the confi dence probability of a sample belonging to each of the fi ve possible EQCs. For the MMI the average confi - dence probability that a stream site truly belonged to the EQC estimated from the observed sample was 89 %. This means that the probability that a stream site belongs to a different EQC than the assessment result indicates was quite low (approximately 11 %). However, it is discussed that the given confi dence probabilities can only be used to estimate the precision of the analysed samples – the results cannot be used for estimating the probability of future samples delivering the same assessment result. Moreover, the present study revealed that certain metrics are more susceptible to variability (EPT [%], EPTCBO) than others (e.g. German Fauna Index “GFI”). The reasons for variability and consequently uncertainty inherent to benthic invertebrate samples are discussed. The results of the present study stress the importance of implementing standardised sampling and sorting protocols and quality control mechanisms in benthic invertebrate assessment schemes.

Linking biological and physicochemical water quality

To define water quality, the European Water Framework Directive (WFD) demands complex assessments through physicochemical, biological, and hydromorphological controls of water bodies. Since the biological assessment became the central focus with hydrochemistry playing a supporting role, an evaluation of the interrelationships within this approach deems necessary. This work identified and tested these relationships to help improve the quality and efficiency of related efforts. Data from the 384 km(2) Weisseritz catchment (eastern Erzgebirge, Saxony, Germany and northern Bohemia, Czech Republic) were used as a representative example for central European streams in mountainous areas. The data cover the time frame 1992 to 2003. To implement WFD demands, the analysis was based on accepted German methods and classifications, WFD quality standards, and novel German methods for the biological status assessment. Selected chemical parameters were compared with different versions of the German Saprobic Index, based on macroinvertebrate indicator taxa. Relevant dependencies applicable for integrated stream assessment were statistically tested. Correlation analysis showed significant relationships. The highest scores were found for nutrients (NO(2)(-), N(inorg), and total N), salinity (Cl(-), SO(4)(2-), conductivity), and microelements (K(+), Na(+), Ca(2+), Mg(2+)). The Saprobic Index used in the Integrated Assessment System for the Ecological Quality of Streams and Rivers throughout Europe using Benthic Macro-invertebrates program seems to be the most sensitive indicator to correlate with chemical parameters.

ASSESSMENT OF NITRATE POLLUTION IN FIZES WATERSHED

River streams together with the adjacent riparian zones constitute essential multifunctional elements of the ecological network worldwide. Water Framework Directive demands a concerted approach towards the goal of achieving a good ecological state for all water bodies across Europe. Nitrate pollution is an issue that all Member States confront. It can be asserted that the sources of nitrate pollution are diffusing (multiple such discharges which are difficult to locate), while the main polluters (farms) are sensitive to everything that affects their economic viability. Fizes watershed, tributary of Somes catchment is located in the northern part of Romania and covers a surface of approximately 562 km2, with an average altitude of approximately 400 m. Nitrate concentration, together with other species of mobile nitrogen were measured in surface water along the Fizes watershed. The main pollution sources are represented by sediments generated by erosional processes and transported in the water bodies, and diffuse pollution sources originated from agricultural activities and the improper septic systems of the localities Through its features of relatively low antropic pressures and with little structural changes, Fizes watershed represents a natural laboratory for designing and implementing programs of restorations of watersheds in agricultural landscapes.

Toward the application of ecological concepts in EU coastal water management

The EU Water Framework Directive demands the protection of the functioning and the structure of our aquatic ecosystems. The defined means to realize this goal are: (1) optimization of the habitat providing conditions and (2) optimizing the water quality. The effects of the measures on the structure and functioning of the aquatic ecosystems then has to be assessed and judged. The available tool to do this is ‘monitoring’. The present monitoring activities in The Netherlands cover target monitoring and trend monitoring. This is insufficient to meet the requirements of the EU. It is, given the EU demands, the ongoing budget reductions in The Netherlands and an increasing flow of unused new ecological concepts and theories (e.g. new theoretical insights related to resource competition theory, intermediate disturbance hypothesis and tools to judge the system quality like ecological network analysis) suggested to reconsider the present monitoring tasks among governmental services (final responsibility for the program and logistic support) and the academia (data analyses, data interpretation and development of concepts suitable for ecosystem modelling and tools to judge the quality of our ecosystems). This will lead to intensified co-operation between both arena’s and consequently increased exchange of knowledge and ideas. Suggestions are done to extend the Dutch monitoring by surveillance monitoring and to change the focus from ‘station oriented’ to ‘area oriented’ without changing the operational aspects and its costs. The extended data sets will allow proper calibration and validation of developed dynamic ecosystem models which is not possible now. The described ‘cost-effective’ change in the environmental monitoring will also let biological and ecological theories play the pivotal role they should play in future integrated environmental management.

Eelgrass as a Bioindicator Under the European Water Framework Directive

Eelgrass is the most widespread plant in temperate coastal waters. It is regarded as a useful indicator of water quality because water clarity regulates its extension towards deeper waters, i.e. the depth limit. This study analyses the use of eelgrass depth limits as a bioindicator under the Water Framework Directive (WFD). The WFD demands that ecological status is classified by relating the actual level of bioindicators to a so-called ‘reference level’, reflecting a situation of limited anthropogenic influence. The directive further demands that reference levels are defined for ‘water body types’ with similar hydromorphological characteristics, and that the classification thereby becomes ‘type-specific’.

Mining lakes in a disturbed landscape: Application of the EC Water Framework Directive and future management strategies

Some of the several hundred Lusatian mining lakes originating from lignite mining will be among the largest and deepest lakes in Germany. A special problem of many of these lakes is severe acidification. According to the EC Water Framework Directive (WFD), artificial lakes larger than 0.5 km 2 have to be monitored and managed in order to establish or maintain a state of so-called good ecological water quality. Therefore the WFD demands the definition of type-specific reference conditions as those of the closest comparable surface water body type in nature, such as natural acidic volcanic crater lakes or oligo- to mesotrophic neutral hard water lakes. We propose a classification scheme for mining lakes applying acidity and planktonic colonization as criteria. Five types of lakes are distinguished ranging from extremely acidic to neutral hard water lakes. Phytoplankton and especially metazoan zooplankton are introduced as intriguing and simple indicators for different states of ecological quality in highly acidic mining lakes. We recommend that extremely and very acidic lakes should remain in the acidic state to protect these as valuable ecosystems, whereas moderately and weakly acidic lakes can be managed by external flooding, chemical or ecotechnological measures to achieve neutral water quality conditions necessary for recreation or fishery use.