Water Flow Rate Measurements Research Articles

Smart Water Management System Using IOT based Sensors

The advancement of technology in the field of Internet of Things (IoT) have grown rapidly over the past years in the field of water management in various context. The work aims to contribute to general process flow of a smart city management specifically in the field of the residential water management system. As well to design a smart water management system for the residential areas that can be implemented not only to a single residential area but to multiple residential areas. This is achieved through implementing sensor-based water flow meter to replace current mechanical water flow gauge. It is as well addressed the need of a common platform to store data that are currently proposed through an additional data acquisition application. Lastly, the work proposes an affordable prototype to measure water flow rate using IOT based sensors to be implemented at large scale and promising usability testing result.

Development of Instrumentation System for Water Supply Network

Development of instrumentation system for water supply network is present in this study. A lot of works has been reported in the area of developing instrumentation system for water flow rate measurement. The output of most of the water flow rate instrumentation systems encountered in the literature may not be accurate because neither their sensors nor the systems themselves were calibrated. Therefore, development of an instrumentation system with calibrated sensor is presented in this study to ameliorate the system output. To realise this system, the water flow was sensed using flow sensor, the output signal from the sensor was processed using microcontroller. The sensor was calibrated to guarantee accurate system output. The developed system was tested on a test rig comprise of source and destination water tanks linked via 4 parallel pipes. Also, the output data from the microcontroller was transferred to the computer for formatting and storage. The calibration results give minimum and maximum calibration error of 1ml and 26ml corresponding to 0.33% and 3.47% respectively. The network nodal rule of source flow rate equals the summation of the destination and leakage flow rate was validated.

A TEG-Based Non-Intrusive Ultrasonic System for Autonomous Water Flow Rate Measurement

Residential water meters accommodate various methods of power provisioning. Electromagnetic and ultrasonic meters, for example, often rely on a battery-like external power source, whereas mechanical meters harvest energy from water flow through an impeller. Although energy harvesting (EH) minimizes maintenance needs driven by battery depletion/replenishment, placing a physical element into the flow adversely affects water pressure. This intrusive EH/sensing technique is not user-friendly either since the meters with impellers need to be embedded into pipes by skilled personnel. Hence, this paper proposes a non-intrusive sensor system powered by thermoelectric generators (TEGs) for <italic xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink">plug-and-play</i> water flow rate measurement. This system, equipped with a custom-made energy management unit (EMU), adopts ultrasonic sensors, a task-based computing scheme, and a LoRa module for autonomous sensing and reporting of the flow rate. After summarizing thermoelectricity and delta time-of-flight ( <inline-formula xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink"><tex-math notation="LaTeX">$\Delta$</tex-math></inline-formula> ToF)-based ultrasonic sensing theory, we provide the system model and design details with a particular focus on the EMU. Then, we experimentally evaluate the system under varying conditions, demonstrating their impact on average sensing and transmission periods. The results unveil that our proposal can achieve high measurement precision ( <inline-formula xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink"><tex-math notation="LaTeX">$\pm 1.4\%$</tex-math></inline-formula> ), comparable to its intrusive and battery-powered counterparts, and thus has the potential of replacing the residential water meters.

Analysis of the Experience of Conducting Field Power Tests of Hydraulic Units with Measurement of Water Flow Rate by Different Methods. Dam-Type Hydropower Plants

Analysis of the Experience of Conducting Field Power Tests of Hydraulic Units with Measurement of Water Flow Rate by Different Methods. Dam-Type Hydropower Plants

Contactless Sensing of Water Properties for Smart Monitoring of Pipelines.

A key milestone for the pervasive diffusion of wireless sensing nodes for smart monitoring of water quality and quantity in distribution networks is the simplification of the installation of sensors. To address this aspect, we demonstrate how two basic contactless sensors, such as piezoelectric transducers and strip electrodes (in a longitudinal interdigitated configuration to sense impedance inside and outside of the pipe with potential for impedimetric leak detection), can be easily clamped on plastic pipes to enable the measurement of multiple parameters without contact with the fluid and, thus, preserving the integrity of the pipe. Here we report the measurement of water flow rate (up to 24 m3/s) and temperature with ultrasounds and of the pipe filling fraction (capacitance at 1 MHz with ~cm3 resolution) and ionic conductivity (resistance at 20 MHz from 700 to 1400 μS/cm) by means of impedance. The equivalent impedance model of the sensor is discussed in detail. Numerical finite-element simulations, carried out to optimize the sensing parameters such as the sensing frequency, confirm the lumped models and are matched by experimental results. In fact, a 6 m long, 30 L demonstration hydraulic loop was built to validate the sensors in realistic conditions (water speed of 1 m/s) monitoring a pipe segment of 0.45 m length and 90 mm diameter (one of the largest ever reported in the literature). Tradeoffs in sensors accuracy, deployment, and fabrication, for instance, adopting single-sided flexible PCBs as electrodes protected by Kapton on the external side and experimentally validated, are discussed as well.

THE USE OF AN ULTRASONIC FLOW METER IN THE ZONE OF INFLUENCE OF INDIRECT SECTIONS OF THE WATER PIPELINE

The accuracy of water flow rate measurement with an ultrasonic flow meter (UFM) is affected by pipeline conditions. On water pipelines, there is often no the required length of direct section, required by the device passport or regulatory documents. Therefore, we conducted experiments using UFM to measure water flow rate in the zone of influence of non-direct sections of the water pipeline. The flow rate was measured in two planes of the pipeline with an offset of 90 o and the average value was taken. Thus, it was expected to take into account the average water velocity for the asymmetric velocity profile. The results of water flow rate measuring with UFM on short direct sections of the water pipeline, limited by pipeline bends sudden constriction of the pipeline, are presented. The greatest influence on the UFM measurement error is the 90 o pipeline bends.

Discharge Measurement for a Part of Lesser Zab River by Using Georadar and Current Meter at Klesa of Erbil, NE Iraq

A Ground Penetrating Radar for bathymetry and water current velocity was used to estimate the discharge value of Lesser Zab River at Klesa station with coordinates (35º 53’ 08.21′′ N, 44º 35′ 35.90′′ E). Two traverses were taken across the river which represented two sites in Klesa area which were (A-B) traverse with the coordinates (N 3970652 and E 491898), and (C-D) traverse with the coordinates (N 3972195 and E 487681). Measuring water flow rate by velocity area method was done by Mid-section method, to confirm the validity of the data; two sections were conducted for each of the two traverses to deduce two radargrams along the profiles (A-B) and (D-C). The radargrams drew by using sophisticated software and were very helpful in detecting the river floor topography and depth variation along both profiles, the distance between the two sites was 5 km. The results indicate that the maximum width of the river at stations is 36.5m and the maximum water depth of Lesser Zab River is 4.75m, maximum velocity is 1.88 m/s. The water flow rate deviates from 136.737m3/s to 147.23m3/s. The average discharge for Lesser Zab river = 141.983 m3/s. This discharge is under normal average because the data was taken in November 2019. Because of the mild weather and the lack of electricity consumption, so using these results in water resource management and planning for satisfying domestic consumption, irrigation, industrial consumption, …etc. in the Klesa area, will be economically beneficial for the water management policy of the country.

Theoretical substantiation of the principle of operation of the rod flow meter of irrigation canals

The paper presents a theoretical substantiation of the developed design of a rod flow meter for open canals of irrigation systems. The design features of the lattice elements are revealed, the methods of their hydraulic calculation are given. It was found that the lattices were not used as sensitive elements for measuring water flow rates. A feature of the hydraulic calculation of lattice elements is that it is necessary to take into account the following pressure losses: from the degree of restriction of the living section of the flow, from the ratio of the rod width to the size of the gap, from the rod width, from the rod thickness, from the shape of the cross section of the rod. The operability of the proposed flow meter is theoretically substantiated. It is found that with a significant change in the angle α of the lattice deviation, the degree of tension of the elastic element (angle β) increases by 1-3% from the nominal position. An analytical dependence for determining the value of the hydrodynamic pressure is also obtained.

Development of bromide-selective Diffusive Gradients in Thin-Films for the measurement of average flow rate of streams

Diffusive Gradients in Thin-Films (DGT) have traditionally been used to measure time-weighted average concentration in water. We tested whether Br−-DGT in combination with the trace-dilution flow rate method, could be used as a new approach for measuring water flow rate. A novel bromide selective DGT based on the Purolite Bromide Plus anion exchange resin (Br−-DGT) was developed, which provided environmental bromide concentrations comparable to grab samples. The Br−-DGT provided quantitative bromide concentrations at a range of pH, competing ion concentrations, and in synthetic natural solution. The uptake efficiency was 95.7 ± 3.4%, and the elution efficiency was 95.5 ± 4.7%. The absorption maximum/saturation point of each binding disk was 0.684 ± 0.001 mg. Bromide adsorption to the binding layer was linear to 44.1% of the total binding capacity, 0.302 mg. The determined diffusion coefficient through the agarose cross-linked polyacrylamide (APA) hydrogels was 1.05 × 10−5 cm2 s−1 at 17.9 °C, temperature corrected to 25 °C was 1.29 × 10−5 cm2 s−1. DGT flow rates were between −14.7 and 6.50% of the flow independently monitored flow rate (weir). In comparison, grab sample flow rates diverged by 5.52 to 58.9% from the weir flow rate.

REAL-TIME COMPARISON OF SEVERAL TRANSPIRATION METHODS FOR ESTIMATING GREENHOUSE VENTILATION RATE VIA WATER VAPOUR BALANCE METHOD

Transpiration rate is an essential factor in the water vapor balance method for estimating the ventilation rate in a greenhouse continuously. Several methods of transpiration measurement, i.e., electronic weighing device (Control), the sap flow measurement (SF), water level measurement (WL), and water flow rate measurement (WF) tested and evaluated on tomato crops in a naturally ventilated greenhouse. The objective was to compare these methods and establish the most affordable one to be used in a greenhouse condition to determine the ventilation rate using the water vapor balance approach. Results obtained with the SF particularly have a strong correlation and are not statistically different from the Control (r=0.89). The WF method gave good results and reliable for predicting the total of transpiration in the greenhouse. However, in our conditions, this method generally had a lag time of the transpiration rate in a short time interval basis (minute and hourly). But it had an excellent predicted transpiration rate in daily evapotranspiration. The WL suffered weak agreement to the Control due to the scattering data. It was affected by the very high sensitivity of the device, and it is not recommended to use on the farm level, like in a greenhouse. It appears that measurements with the control and the SF could be considered for monitoring the ventilation rate in the greenhouse using a water vapor balance technique.

Use of indirect methodologies for determining the flow rate in water pumping systems

Water flow rate measurements are important for monitoring the irrigation practice. It is essential to find the real value of this variable using alternative low-cost methods which are easy to use or readily available. This study aimed to perform a comparative analysis among different methodologies for determining the flow rate in water pumping systems. Seven methodologies were analyzed, with 13 tests each. Three tests were done for adjustment and ten to test the equations. The correlation between the observed value and the values obtained by the methodologies was performed for the adjustment. The equations were subsequently used to obtain the estimated flow rate for comparison with the observed values. The comparative analysis was performed through the following statistical indicators: Precision Index, Agreement Index, Performance index, Root mean square deviation and Nash-Sutcliffe efficiency. The methodology which showed the best adjustment in the flow estimation was the U-tube vacuometer. The pressure showed the best general performance among the tested parameters with the Tensiometer, Bourdon vacuum gauge and U-tube vacuum gauge instruments.

Pitometry as a validation tool for water flow measurement in large diameter pipelines

Accurate measurement of water flow rates in large diameter pipelines is a challenge for water companies that need to produce, transport and distribute increasing quantities of water. To a large extent, this challenge results from the impossibility of recalibration of the flow meters within the periodicity established in the metrological regulations since the removal of a large size flow meter from its site of operation in the field and its transport to a calibration laboratory is in most cases technically and economically impracticable. Because of this scenario, this paper presents the pitometry technique as an interesting alternative to solve problems related to the validation of water flow measurements performed by flow measurement systems installed in large diameter conduits. The technique is based on the determination of the water flow rate by mapping the velocity profile of the water flow inside the pipe by means of Cole type Pitot tubes. The water flow rate is determined in a cross section of the pipe located near and in series to the flowmeter to be evaluated. Based on the results obtained in a great number of water flow measurements already performed by applying the pitometry technique in large diameter pipelines in the field, it is possible to conclude that this methodology is perfectly applicable in the validation of the performance of flow meters installed in these conduits solving satisfactorily the issues related to its operation.

Measurement of fluid flow rate using nanocomposite silicone rubber sensor

This paper describes the use of an elastic nanocomposite sensor to measure the water flow rate in open and closed hydraulic circuits. A sensor was constructed of multiwalled carbon nanotubes (MWCNTs) dispersed in silicone rubber (SR) and subsequently tested to verify its ability to measure water flow rate. The results reveal that the correlation between the fluid flow rate and the pressure variation across the sensor entails that its electrical resistance can be correlated to the flow rate. The sensor constructed of 2 and 3 wt,% of MWCNTs in SR-based nanocomposite sensors exhibited a low percolation threshold. An electron microscope (HRSEM) was used to characterize the manufactured nanocomposite sensors and confirm the conductive networks. The variation in the electrical resistance of the sensor in terms of both water pressure and flow rate is described. The elastic sensor was calibrated to measure the water flow rate in the range of 0–35 l/min. The results show that an elastic sensor fabricated from MWCNTs dispersed in silicone rubber does exhibit sensitivity to the slight strain levels produced by dynamic water pressure and, as such, can be used to measure flow rate. In addition, the sensor's response to water flow in the presence of bubbles enables pump cavitation monitoring. This paper also investigates the reduction of sensor electrical conductivity in response to water immersion. The findings reveal that the elastic nanocomposite sensor could potentially be used as a liquid sensor to detect water leakage in hydraulic circuits.

Measuring Water Flow Rate for a Fire Hose Using a Wireless Sensor Network for Smart Fire Fighting

Measuring Water Flow Rate for a Fire Hose Using a Wireless Sensor Network for Smart Fire Fighting

Clamp-On Measurements of Fluid Flow in Small-Diameter Metal Pipes Using Ultrasonic Guided Waves

Clamp-on ultrasonic transit time difference is used extensively to calculate the volumetric flow rate of a fluid through a pipe. The operating principle is that waves traveling along a path that is generally against the flow direction take longer to travel the same path than waves traveling along the same path in the opposite direction. The transit time difference between the waves traveling in opposite directions can be used to calculate the flow rate through the pipe, by applying suitable mathematical correction factors. The approach is non-disruptive and noninvasive and can be retrospectively fit to pipes and easily relocated to different positions. When ultrasonic clamp-on transducers are attached to pipes with diameters of less than 30 mm and a wall thickness of less than a few millimeters, the resulting guided waves can appear confusing and produce very different signals to those observed on larger diameter pipes. The experimentally observed behavior of these guided waves in fluid-filled, small-diameter pipes is analyzed, modeled, and explained. Experiments are performed in copper pipes of sizes that are commonly used in buildings, and accurate measurements of water flow rates are taken down to a few milliliters per second. This technique presents new possibilities for smart metering of water supplies, where the positioning of the small clamp-on transducers is not sensitive to the variations in water temperature, and low-power electronics can be used.

Development of a self-powered wireless sensor node measuring water flowrate using a turbine flowmeter

Development of a self-powered wireless sensor node measuring water flowrate using a turbine flowmeter

An engineering‐oriented variable water flow air‐conditioning system terminal flow rate estimation method based on component flow resistance characteristics

AbstractWater flow rate plays an important role in the modeling prediction, fault detection and diagnosis, and performance optimization of the variable water flow air‐conditioning (VWFAC) system. However, flowmeters employed by the system's terminals have not been widely used in engineering applications for the constraints in installation space and high installation and retrofit costs. Therefore, in this study, a terminal flow rate estimation method is proposed for the VWFAC system to reduce the dependency on flowmeters. The water flow rate estimation model is developed based on the flow resistance characteristics inside the air handling unit (AHU) and was trained and verified at the Monitoring and Control Laboratory established in the Dalian University of Technology. The results indicate that the maximum root‐mean‐square error (RMSE) during the training and validation sessions are 0.038 m3/h and 0.028 m3/h, respectively, while the corresponding mean absolute percentage error (MAPE) are below 1.4% and 6.5%, which is acceptable for engineering applications. To improve the flow rate estimation accuracy of the model, water temperature, water flow rate, and pressure difference are suggested to cover a wide varied range during the training session as much as possible. Systematic error is an important index in determining the demands for sensor's accuracy class. According to the results of water flow rate, the systematic errors of the estimates are ranged between 0.51% and 0.76%, only about 1/4 to 1/3 of the measurements systematic errors. Based on the error propagation theory, the water flow rate estimates would be reliable if the systematic error of the pressure measurements does not over twice that of the water flow rate measurements. This flow rate estimation method can be further applied to other thermal engineering systems to bring considerable economic benefits for engineering applications.

Flow Measurements Using a Sluice Gate; Analysis of Applicability

This study analyzes the possibilities of using an irrigation sluice gate in submerged conditions to measure water flow rate. Hydraulic experiments on sluice gate discharge capacity were performed on a model made on a 1:2 scale. Measurements were taken for the submerged flow of the sluice gate. Nomograms and relationships for discharge coefficients of the analyzed sluice gate were developed. The possibility of using the existing nomogram for discharge capacity of the submerged sluice gate to determine the discharge capacity of the modeled gate was also investigated. The effect of narrowing of the sluice gate cross-section resulting from different mounting techniques on its capacity was explained. The analyses confirmed the possibility of using the formulas for the submerged sluice gate to estimate the flow through the irrigation sluice gate.

Scale‐up of Microfiltration Processes

AbstractA flow rate and resistance‐based approach for upscaling of microfiltration processes from lab scale to process scale is presented, in correlation with biopharmaceutical processes. Basic element is the modeling of filtration curves using a resistance‐in‐series model based on the Darcy equation. The influences of the filtration setup and the fouling layer are described as additional resistances that change in course of filtration. The necessary parameters, such as setup resistances and filtration areas, are determined by water flow rate measurements. The model is validated by filtration of a particulate test solution. The presented approach can be used for constant flow and constant pressure driven filtration processes.

К ВОПРОСУ РАСЧЕТА И ИСПОЛЬЗОВАНИЯ ГИДРОМЕТРИЧЕСКОГО ЛОТКА ПАРШАЛЛА С СОВРЕМЕННЫМИ ПРИБОРАМИ УЧЕТА ВОДЫ

Purpose: the use of a flow-metering flume and a modern metering device for water metering in an open canal with a flow rate of up to 1.5 cubic meters per second with the subsequent prospect of automating the measurement process. Materials and methods: the main function of the hydrometric structure – giving the fluid flow a given regime and pattern within a limited channel is theoretically used in the article. With the help of a hydrometric structure (Parshall flume) using the well-known “velocity-area” method, it is possible to determine the functional dependence of the water flow rate on one measured parameter, in this case on the level. With the use of modern sensors or devices for metering this parameter, it is easy in the future to automate the process of its metering, registration and transmission over a distance. Results and Discussion: the calculation of the maximum flow rate of the chute according to the selected empirical formula showed the correct selection and calculation of its parameters for the structure in accordance with a given maximum flow rate (up to 1.5 cubic meters per second), which does not require additional calibration of the chute during application. Conclusions: recently, more and more attention has been paid to the accuracy of used water metering in open irrigation canals with a low flow rate. With introduction of new modern devices that convert the measured parameter into the amount of measured water flow, the relevance of their use together with hydrometric devices increases. To measure water flow in an open canal, it is proposed to use Parshall flume with a modern measuring device, consisting of a submersible pressure sensor and a remote control and monitoring unit installed in a stilling well. The description of design and an example of clarifying the geometric dimensions of a flume with a measured water flow rate of up to 1.5 cubic meters per second is provided. The design diagrams of the flume and stilling well with the placement of a modern measuring device are presented.