Water Degumming Research Articles

Chemical compositions and oxidative stabilities of cold-pressed walnut oils (Juglans regia L.): Effects of chemical refining, water degumming, and molecular distillation.

Walnut oils are of important academic and economic value, and are becoming one of the most important woody oils. Accurate and moderate refining techniques are required to produce high-quality walnut oils. In this work, walnut oils obtained from cold processing were refined in three typical techniques, mainly chemical refining, water degumming, and molecular distillation. Physicochemical properties (acid value and peroxide value [POV]), minor components (tocopherol, polyphenols, and phytosterol), oxidative stability indices, and volatile compounds were analyzed to find out the appropriate refining method for the cold-pressed walnut oils. Quality indices of all the refined oils from the three different refining methods met the requirements of the national standard, of which the POV of chemically refined oil (0.241g/100g) was higher than crude oil (0.058g/100g). Water degumming was most suitable for retaining of bioactive compounds, for example, the tocopherol was 259.40mg/kg, the polyphenols was 44.54mgGAE/kg, and the phytosterol was 987.32mg/kg, but oxidation stability of the obtained oil (3.09h) was lower than that of molecular distilled oil (4.18h). Initial physicochemical properties especially the POV had a significant impact on oxidation stability. There is a trade-off between the retention of nutrients and extending shelf life, indicating appropriate refining techniques should be developed; that is, water degumming is suggested to be involved in producing high-quality cold-pressed walnut oils.

Efficient preparation of diglycerides from rapeseed oil sediment using phospholipase C in a solvent-free phospholipid hydrolysis system

Diacylglycerols (DAGs), which are involved in rapid energy supply and fat reduction, are typically produced from triglycerides, glycerol and fatty acids through lipase-catalysis. This study introduces a novel method for preparing DAGs in a solvent-free system by using phospholipase C (PLC) hydrolysis of rapeseed oil sediment, which is a byproduct of the rapeseed oil water degumming. The optimisation of DAGs production by PLC hydrolysis using Response Surface Methodology (RMS) and Box-Behnken design. Under optimal conditions of 0.6% enzyme concentration, 51 °C reaction temperature, 56% water content and 2.2 h reaction time, phosphatidylcholine (PC) and phosphatidylethanolamine in the oil sediment were almost entirely converted into DAGs. This reaction yielded an oil product containing 27.1% DAGs, with 1,2-DAGs at 24.88% ± 0.01% and 1,3-DAGs at 2.22% ± 0.01%, which is favoured in drug delivery systems, and the fatty acid composition of DAGs oil was almost consistent with rapeseed oil. Moreover, the residual phospholipids were primarily phosphatidylinositol (PI), with an amount of 69.73%, suggesting the potential for high-purity PI production. In this study, rapeseed oil sediment achieved comprehensive utilization through hydrolysis by PLC, which not only enhanced the value of the oil sediment but also provided a new approach for the synthesis of DAGs.

Techno-economic analysis of Castor (Ricinus communis) Oil Refinery Process Simulation

Castor (Ricinus communis) plants have been cultivated. Castor oil has been cultivated and has become one of the world’s major commodities, with the leading producer being India. Castor oil’s primary products and derivatives include Hydrogenated Castor Oil (HCO), polymers, lubricants, and biodiesel. Conventional extraction is usually done using a machine or hot water extraction methods. In large industries, extraction is carried out to obtain high purity with the help of solvents. Organic solvents are suitable for extraction, such as methanol, ethanol, and n-hexane, which are the most commonly used. This research aims to obtain techno-economic feasibility through a simulation of castor oil production using SuperPro Designer version 13.0. The extraction process is carried out in two stages: mechanical extraction followed by water degumming, neutralization, and adsorption with activated carbon. Production capacity and technology used are adjusted to existing companies and literature. From the results of the economic analysis, this production process is feasible with an IRR of 32.11%, a PBP of 3.25 years, and a BC Ratio of 1.05.

Effect of industrial bleaching on the physicochemical and nutritional quality of non-allergenic lecithin derived from rice bran oil (Oryza sativa L.)

The demand for lecithin has increased due to the need for plant-derived products, its important role in health benefits, and the wide range of industrial applications. However, most studies with lecithin use allergenic sources such as soy and egg yolk. Lecithin can be used in the crude form or modified with chemical by the bleaching process in order to quality proprieties. Therefore, we produced lecithin from a non-allergenic source (rice bran oil) by water degumming and evaluated the physicochemical and nutritional properties of natural and bleached lecithin by addition of hydrogen peroxide in an industrial scale. The physicochemical parameters indicated the quality of 12 lecithin samples. From these, 5 and 2 simples of natural and bleached lecithin, respectively, achieved FAO quality recommendations (acid value < 36 mgNaOH/g; hexane insoluble <0.3%; acetone insoluble from 50 to 60%; peroxide value < 10 meq/kg; and moisture <1%). From the multivariate analysis, it was observed that the bleaching process resulted in the improvement of physicochemical parameters, reduction of moisture and depigmentation of lecithin. Natural lecithin showed a greater tendency to accumulate phospholipids, tocopherols, tocotrienols, palmitic, stearic, and linolenic acids, while bleached lecithin stood out for accumulating γ-oryzanol, δ-tocotrienol, oleic and linoleic acids. In this paper, we suggest that the by-product of rice bran oil is a potential source to produce a non-allergenic, nutritious and safe lecithin, especially when the bleaching process is applied, which can contribute to quality enhancement on an industrial scale.

Effect of degumming degree on the structure and tensile properties of RSF/RSS composite films prepared by one-step extraction

Regenerated silk fibroin (RSF) and regenerated sericin (RSS) have attracted much attention for tissue engineering due to excellent biocompatibility and controllable degradation. However, pure RSF films prepared by existing methods are brittle, which limits applications in the field of high-strength and/or flexible tissues (e.g. cornea, periosteum and dura). A series of RSF/RSS composite films were developed from solutions prepared by dissolving silks with different degumming rates. The molecular conformation, crystalline structure and tensile properties of the films and the effect of sericin content on the structure and properties were investigated. Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) and X-ray diffraction results revealed more β-sheets in films prepared by boiling water degumming than in Na2CO3-degummed RSFC film. Analysis of mechanical properties showed that the breaking strength (3.56 MPa) and elongation (50.51%) of boiling water-degummed RSF/RSS film were significantly increased compared with RSFC film (2.60 MPa and 32.31%), and the flexibility of films could be further improved by appropriately reducing the degumming rate.

Optimization of Physical Refining Process of Camellia Oil for Reduction of 3-Monochloropropane-1,2-Diol (3-MCPD) Ester Formation Using Response Surface Methodology on a Laboratory Scale.

Refined and deodorized camellia oil has been reported to contain a high amount of 3-monochloropropane-1,2-diol esters (3-MCPDE) due to the high-temperature deodorization step. To reduce 3-MCPDE in camellia oil, the physical refining process of camellia oil was simulated on a laboratory scale. Response surface methodology (RSM) was designed to modify and optimize the refining process with five processing parameters (water degumming dosage, degumming temperature, activated clay dosage, deodorization temperature and deodorization time). The optimized new refining approach achieved a 76.9% reduction in 3-MCPDE contents, in which the degumming moisture was 2.97%, the degumming temperature was 50.5 °C, the activated clay dosage was 2.69%, the deodorizing temperature was 230 °C, and the deodorizing time was 90 min. A significance test and analysis of variance results demonstrated that the deodorization temperature and deodorization time contributed significantly to the reduction of 3-MCPD ester. The joint interaction effects of activated clay dosage and deodorization temperature were significant for 3-MCPD ester formation.

Evaluation of the effect of sesame lecithin emulsifier generated from sesame oil water degumming process on margarine production

Lecithin or phosphatidylcholine is an important natural emulsifier and is found widely in various food fields in the manufacture of emulsions. However, commercial lecithin comes from soybean oil. This suggests that there is a need to study lecithin production from other vegetable oils, such as sesame oil. This study aimed to determine the production and characteristics of vegetable lecithin from sesame oil through a water degumming process, and then applied it to the production of margarine to determine the effect on physical, chemical, and organoleptic properties. The lecithin produced was used in the manufacture of margarine using a two factorial randomized block design method consisting of 3 levels. The results of this study indicated that the lecithin characteristic of sesame oil has the largest content, namely oleic acid (9-Octadecenoic, C19) of 46.58% and the strongest vibration band is CH2 vibration with stretching mode of symmetry and asymmetry at 2920 and 2850 cm-1 . The L3C3 treatment was the best result with 27% water content, 70% fat content, 98% emulsion stability, 8.25 cm spreadability and organoleptic showed a preference value, namely colour 3.40 (good), taste 2.50 (looking good), smell 2.50 (looking good) and texture 3.40 (good).

Optimization using response surface methodology of phospholipase C production from Bacillus cereus suitable for soybean oil degumming

This work deals with the optimization of an extracellular phospholipase C production by Bacillus cereus (PLCBc) using Response Surface Methodology (RMS) and Box-Behnken design. In fact, after optimization, a maximum phospholipase activity (51 U/ml) was obtained after 6 h of cultivation on tryptone (10 g/L), yeast extract (10 g/L), NaCl (8.125 g/L), pH 7.5 with initial OD (0.15). The PLCBc activity, esteemed by the model (51 U) was very approximate to activity gutted experimentally (50 U). The PLCBc can be considered as thermoactive phospholipase since it showed a maximal activity of 50 U/mL at 60 °C using egg yolk or egg phosphatidylcholine (PC) as substrate. In addition, the enzyme was active at pH 7 and is stable after incubation at 55 °C for 30 min. The application of B. cereus phospholipase C in soybean oil degumming was investigated. Our results showed that when using enzymatic degumming, the residual phosphorus decrease more than with water degumming, indeed, it passes from 718 ppm in soybean crude oil to 100 ppm and 52 ppm by degumming using water and enzymatic process, respectively. The diacylgycerol (DAG) yield showed an increase of 1.2% with enzymatic degumming compared to soybean crude oil. This makes our enzyme a potential candidate for food industrial applications such as enzymatic degumming of vegetable oils.

Glucosinolates or erucic acid, which one contributes more to volatile flavor of fragrant rapeseed oil?

This study aims to investigate the effect of three rapeseed varieties with different erucic acid (EA) and glucosinolates (GLSs) content, and different degumming methods on the volatile flavor profiles of fragrant rapeseed oil (FRO). A total of 171 volatile compounds were identified by headspace solid-phase microextraction combine with gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (HS-SPME/GC–MS), and 87 compounds were identified as key odorants owing to their relative odor activity values (ROAV) ≥ 1. Methyl furfuryl disulfide was identified in rapeseed oil for the first time, with highest ROAVs (up to 26805.46). The volatile flavor profile of rapeseed oil was affected by GLSs content to a certain extent rather than EA content. Rapeseed varieties with low-EA and high-GLSs are suitable to produce FRO. Silicon dioxide adsorbing was an effective alternative method to water degumming in FRO. This work provided a new idea for selection of raw materials and degumming methods in FRO production.

Production Of Lecithin As An Emulsifier From Vegetable Oil Using Water Degumming Process

Lecithin is a phospholipid that has amphiphilic properties resulted polar and non-polar regions, thus it is very effective to be food emulsifier. However, commercial lecithin derived from animal organs such as pig brain, that it is clearly haram. Today, commercial vegetable lecithin derived from soybean oil only. Therefore, lecithin production from other vegetable oils can be made Halal food. In this study, it determined production of lecithin from vegetable oils (coconut oil, palm oil, corn oil and soybean oil) using water degumming process. Vegetable oil is heated up to 70 ° C and added 3% of soft water and then stirred for an hour. To separate the gum, it is used centrifuge at 5000 rpm for 20 minutes. The results showed that only gum from corn oil that can be potentially produce crude lecithin as an emulsifier, resulted gum dry yield (0.11%) and acetone insoluble (AI) 62.75%. This result has significantly the same with soybean lecithin as a control. Unfortunately, it has water content of 6.14% that need further improvement.

The effect of activated water degumming technique on alkali-pretreated banana fiber

There is a need for sustainable ways of processing plant fibers. Most chemical degumming methods pose a threat to the eco-system because of the presence of toxins during disposal. This study aimed to find sustainable ways of processing banana fiber with less harm to the environment. Sodium hydroxide (NaOH) and activated water were utilized for degumming and softening of the banana fiber. Activated water is an aqueous solution of electrolyte with strongly oxidizing active substances prepared by an electrochemical method. The alkali-pretreated banana fiber were immersed in activated water to refine banana fiber. The results from the study show that activated water further refined the fibers down to 39.7 µm diameter after NaOH pretreatment and also achieved better whiteness at 74.7%. The electrochemically activated water solutions displayed a promising effect in removing lignin, hemicellulose, and other impurities. The fibers of this quality could be used in the spinning of yarn and for other textile applications. Various analytical techniques, including digital microscope, scanning electron microscope, Fourier transform Infrared spectroscopy, X-ray diffractometry, tensile test, and whiteness test were utilized. These tests confirmed that the activated water used on banana fiber enhanced physical, chemical, and morphological properties.

Oxidative stability of Moringa oleifera seed oil: Effect of degumming and deodorization on tocopherol retention

AbstractMoringa oleifera seed oil (MSO) from Lombok was extracted by n‐hexane and evaluated after refining by several degumming methods to understand the impact of individual tocopherol retention and compared to extra virgin olive oil (EVOO) and high oleic palm oil (HOPO). MSO achieved an Oxidative Stability Index (15.8 h); EVOO (11.7 h) HOPO (8.83 h), based on two factors; the degree of unsaturation and total tocopherols, which did not accurately correlate with oxidation stability. The presence of tocopherol type affected the efficiency of heat stability in MSO, which is caused by a significant level of δ‐tocopherol (13.5 ppm), which was retained, through effective water degumming. Whereas, δ‐tocopherol in EVOO was not detected. This strongly suggests δ‐tocopherol contributes effectively against heat oxidation and thereby improved the overall stability of MSO.Novelty impact statementSeveral novelties are identified in this work, which at the time, could not be found within the literature: first, the type of phosphatide in Moringa Oleifera is in hydratable form. Hence, secondly, we propose the appropriate degumming method for Moringa Oleifera seed oil is by water degumming. And third, the particular tocopherol type most impacting the oxidative stability performance of Moringa Oleifera was identified as δ‐tocopherol.

Enhanced Silk Fibroin/Sericin Composite Film: Preparation, Mechanical Properties and Mineralization Activity

The periosteum plays an important role in bone formation and reconstruction. One of the reasons for the high failure rate of bone transplantation is the absence of the periosteum. Silk fibroin (SF) and silk sericin (SS) have excellent biocompatibility and physicochemical properties, which have amazing application prospects in bone tissue engineering, but lacked mechanical properties. We developed a series of SF/SS composite films with improved mechanical properties using boiling water degumming, which caused little damage to SF molecular chains to retain larger molecules. The Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy and X-ray diffraction results showed that there were more β-sheets in SF/SS films than in Na2CO3 degummed SF film, resulting in significantly improved breaking strength and toughness of the composite films, which were increased by approximately 1.3 and 1.7 times, respectively. The mineralization results showed that the hydroxyapatite (HAp) deposition rate on SF/SS composite films was faster than that on SF film. The SF/SS composite films effectively regulated the nucleation, growth and aggregation of HAp-like minerals, and the presence of SS accelerated the early mineralization of SF-based materials. These composite films may be promising biomaterials in the repair and regeneration of periosteum.

Technology innovation and business model of palm oil miniplant for food and energy

Palm oil is Indonesia’s main export commodity and has many contributions to the economy. Palm Oil Mill is built by private or state-owned company with the minimum capacity of 30 tph and far from smallholder plantations. Transportation costs and delays have caused the quality of fresh fruit bunch decrease and prices have dropped in the farmer level. This study aimed to design a palm oil mini plant by evaluating existing technology, innovating process, and equipment design, also analyzing financial aspect. The methods used in this research were literature study, laboratory test, interview, and observation. The selected process technology was sterilization using steam (t = 90 minutes, T = 130°C, P = 300 kPa), threshing with rotating speed of 21 rpm, heating method in the digester (t = 14 minutes, T = 90°C, v = 23 rpm), extraction of oil palm fruit with a screw press machine (P = 4500 kPa, v = 11 rpm). The process of refining Crude Palm Oil (CPO) gone through 3 stages, namely degumming with water degumming, neutralization using deacidification, and fractionation using the dry method to produce Refined Palm Oil (RPO). Technological innovations were carried out in vertical sterilizers with the addition of water to the sterilizer when loading the fruits, the use of augers and improvements to the sterilization system. The value propositions of palm oil miniplant business model are the ease of bureaucracy, flexibility of small-scale industry, high quality (FFA<5%), and competitive prices. The supply chain flow starts from independent smallholder plantations to oil palm miniplants without going through collectors. The products are CPO, RPO which high antioxidants activity because of tocopherols and carotenoids content, and Palm Kernel (PK). The financial feasibility analysis of palm oil mini plant resulted in an NPV of IDR 15,068,339,048, IRR of 28%, BCR of 11,7 and PBP of 2,8 years. This study showed that the palm oil mill mini plant is financially feasible to build.

Remove Non-hydrated Phospholipids in Okra Seed Oil by Silicon Dioxide.

Water degumming, mainly removes hydrated phospholipids, is the most common method applying in traditional edible oil production. Silicon dioxide (SiO2) adsorption has been proved as a green and efficient method for removing phospholipids from rapeseed oil. But both methods exhibited poor effect on okra seed oil. Based on a hypothesis that SiO2 can adsorb non-hydrated phospholipids, removal effect of non-hydrated phospholipids in okra seed oil was studied. Single factor test and response surface design were used to optimize the SiO2 adsorbing process in water-degummed oil. Meanwhile, the qualities and flavor changes of okra seed oil before and after degumming were compared and analyzed. The results showed that the optimized degumming procedure was: 1.43% (w/w) of SiO2 added into the water-degummed oil, and the mixture was stirred at 33.52℃ for 30.47 min. The maximum non-hydrated phospholipids removal rate reached 43.3%. Comparing with crude okra seed oil, the optimal degumming method resulted in the increase of peroxide value and the decrease of induction period (IP) of the oil. However, it had the same safety as the water and the SiO2 degumming methods. It could retain 62% of total phenols, which was less than the water and the SiO2 degumming methods (both about 79%). The differences of E-nose sensors among oils were most likely caused by the pyrazines. It is necessary to study the composition and properties of phospholipids and develop new methods to further improve the phospholipids removal rate of okra seed oil.

Convenient method for the simultaneous production of high-quality fragrant rapeseed oil and recovery of phospholipids via electrolyte degumming

A degumming protocol, which utilized sodium chloride solution (SCS), was developed to remove phospholipids (PLs) and retain the flavor of fragrant rapeseed oil (FRO). The composition of PLs, physicochemical characteristics, and flavor profile of FRO were determined to assess the degumming effect of SCS. The PL removal rate of the finally optimized degumming procedure (SCS concentration of 3%, w/w) was 90.7%, which was superior to that of water degumming (86.3%). Moisture, total phenolic, and phytosterol contents indicated the high quality of the oils subjected to 3% SCS degumming. Additionally, FRO produced via the developed method had a bright color, and its flavor was well retained. Moreover, the PLs obtained via 3% SCS degumming exhibited better emulsifying capability than commercial lecithin, suggesting that the recovered PLs could be reclaimed. Therefore, the proposed technology is economical and effective. It has a promising prospect in industrial FRO degumming.

Utilization of Corn Oil through Water Degumming Process for Lecithin Emulsifier Production

Lecithin is an emulsifier that plays an active role in reducing surface tension in making emulsions. The production of lecithin from other vegetable oils allows the use of other types of vegetable oil as a source of lecithin production to replace soy-based oil, which has begun to be used as a bioenergy raw material. This study aims to find an alternative source of new lecithin derived from corn oil by knowing the characteristics of lecithin and applied to mayonnaise. The resulting lecithin was used in mayonnaise with a 2 factorial randomized block design method consisting of 3 levels. Based on the results obtained, the characteristic of corn oil lecithin is that the largest content is hexadecanoic acid which is 44.79%, and the strongest vibration band is CH2 vibration with stretching modes of symmetry and asymmetry at 2922 and 2853 cm–1 and the terminal CH3 group in the 1374 cm–1. L3C3 treatment was the best result with 60% fat content, 4% emulsion stability, 2.12 cP viscosity, and 1.42 × 10–3 N/m surface tension and organoleptic showed a preference value, namely color 4.4 (like), taste 3.2 (sufficient like), smell 4 (like), and texture 3.80 (like it).

Auxiliary Degumming and Pressurized High Temperature Water Washing to Mitigate the Formation of Monochloropropanediols in Palm Oil

AbstractThis study reports the benefits of auxiliary degumming (Aux.D) and pressurized high temperature (165 °C) water washing (PHTW) to mitigate the formation of monochloropropanediols (MCPD) during labscale physical refining of palm oil. Water‐based degumming in combination with bleaching and deodorization are performed as the selected physical refining process. The mitigation concepts Aux.D and PHTW are integrated into the refining protocol and the ultimately observed MCPD levels in the fully refined oils are determined. Aux.D is performed by extracting the hydratable gum from pressed sunflower oil and using it as a degumming agent to further purify palm oil that has been previously subjected to centrifugation and water degumming. This approach enables the mitigation of 3‐MCPD from the water washed reference 2.4–0.9 mg kg−1 in ampoules. Even stronger mitigation is obtained when Aux.D is combined with bleaching and executed twice allowing a mitigation from the reference 1.9–0.6 mg kg−1, in ampoules. PHTW is shown to decrease the 3‐MCPD content of the refined oil from the reference 2.4–1 mg kg−1, in ampoules and when combined with bleaching and executed twice showing a decrease from the reference 1.9–0.9 mg kg−1.Practical applications: The benefits of these mitigation concepts are confirmed both in sealed ampoule tests and in deodorizer experiments at the lab scale. A combined application of Aux.D or PHTW with physical refining may represent new insights that can help to potentially further mitigate the formation of MCPD in physically refined palm oil beyond the limits achievable with current refining practices.

Modern Methods of Degumming of Vegetable Oils: An Analytical Review

The review article compares and discusses the most common ways to degumming vegetable oils. Its purpose is to update the information on this stage of vegetable oil refining in order to provide an opportunity to choose the optimal degumming method for the manufacturer. Degumming is the first of the stages of oil processing, designed to remove phospholipids, the presence of which makes it impossible to carry out high-quality performance of all subsequent stages of refining. The fractional composition of plant phospholipids of various oils is presented, the features of their structure, which affect their hydrophilicity, are considered. Various theoretical approaches to the degumming process are considered. The article compares the disadvantages, advantages and effectiveness of aqueous, acidic, enzymatic degumming, total degumming, and soft degumming. Enzymatic degumming is today considered the main method for extracting phospholipids from oils. Under industrial conditions, for oils with a low phospholipid content (for example, sunflower oil), the use of phospholipases in order to obtain a low-phosphoric oil (less than 10 ppm) is reasonable (with an eye to reducing oil losses at this stage). But this is only possible if preliminary acid degumming is carried out. The advantages and difficulties of enzymatic degumming are considered. The combination of acid degumming with alkaline neutralization is perhaps the most effective and easiest way to obtain oil with a low residual phospholipid content. Despite the traditional nature of this approach, it remains highly effective, the easiest to implement, and inexpensive. The intensification of the mixing of the phases "oil–degumming agent" leads to a significant increase in the efficiency of degumming. The article discusses the use of ultrasonic and cavitation devices for this purpose. A promising direction in the development of food industry technologies today is the use of membranes. The features of this physical method of degumming are considered. The selected type of degumming and the conditions for its implementation affect not only the composition and performance of oils, but also the quality and safety of a valuable by-product of this stage – lecithin. The highest quality lecithin is obtained as a result of water or enzymatic degumming – water or aqueous solutions of enzymes do not negatively affect the quality indicators of lecithin, its composition. Lecithin obtained by water degumming contains almost no non-hydrophilic phospholipids. Lecithin obtained using phospholipases contains increased amounts of lysoforms of phospholipids, which positively affects its surfactant properties.

Establishment of an Effective Refining Process for Moringa oleifera Kernel Oil

This study systematically established the most effective refining process for Moringa oleifera (MO) kernel oil. Acid degumming (20.33 ± 1.37 ppm) removed significantly greater phosphorus than water degumming (31.18 ± 0.90 ppm). Neutralization was more effective than deodorization in decreasing the acid (0.06 mg KOH/g) and p-Anisidine (p-AV, 0.36 ± 0.03) values of the oil. Besides improving its color properties, acid-activated bleaching earth Type B was better than Types A and C in decreasing the oil’s p-AV (0.43 ± 0.02), acid value (3.96 ± 0.02 mg KOH/g), and moisture content (0.01 ± 0.00% w/w). The selected refining stages successfully produced MO kernel oil with acceptable peroxide value (PV, 1.66–3.33 meq/kg), p-AV (1.05–1.49), total oxidation value (TOTOX, 4.38–8.15), acid value (0.03 mg KOH/g), moisture content (0.01% w/w), phosphorus content (1.28–1.94 ppm), iodine value (80.79–81.03), oleic acid (79.52–79.65%), and tocopherol content (65.26–87.00 mg/kg).