Water Consumption In Cities Research Articles

Development and Application of An Integrated Urban Water Cycle System by Combining Water Cycle Elements

Smart city in water resources area attempts are being made by establishing an integrated urban water cycle model for a stable water supply and efficient water management in the city. Accordingly, the need for simulation and integrated management of water consumption in cities is increasing. If it is possible to predict and respond in advance to consumers' water consumption, more efficient urban water resource management will be possible based on river intake. Therefore, in this study, an integrated urban water cycle model was constructed that links river intake, water purification plants, retention tanks, water distribution, sewage pipe networks, sewage treatment plants, and river discharge of treated water. It was developed using C++, and was built by linking the modules of the water intake pump station, retention tank, water purification plant, sewage treatment plant, water supply pipe network, and the sewage pipe network. Among them, the water intake pumping station and retention tank were developed independently, and the other modules were linked with commercial software such as WaterFlow, MassFlow, EPANET, and SWMM. The model measures data such as water quality factors and flow rates for each module, displays the operation status, and enables linkage for each module, even when the measurement time interval is different. In addition, warnings and error messages were generated when a problem occurred during the operation of each module. To verify the applicability of the developed integrated model, the change in the water level of the retention tank was calculated by simulating consumer water consumption. As a result, it was confirmed that the water level change in the retention tank was proper, which meant that the operation changed from the intake pumping station. The developed model is expected to be used as an integrated urban water cycle model in the future.

Reclaimed water systems in office buildings: Perceptions of building facilities managers

AbstractBy the year 2050, 67% of the global population will be living in cities where water demand is projected to outstrip supply. This shortage calls for identifying ways through which urban residents and commercial interests can adapt to water stress. As commercial buildings contribute significantly to water consumption in cities, building facilities managers (BFMs) have a significant role in formulation and implementation of the adaptation approaches. Their perceptions of alternative water sources, including reclaimed water, are, therefore, important. In this study, the perceptions of 40 BFMs on reclaimed water use in buildings were analyzed using Q‐methodology. Analysis correlated the responses of different people, factoring out the groups of people who hold similar viewpoints. Results showed that participants could be categorized under four factors. Participants in Factor 1 perceived reclaimed water as being healthy and a worthy investment. Those in Factor 2, however, had negative perceptions and did not trust local governments to appropriately manage the treatment process, thus presenting health concerns. They also found reclaimed water repulsive. Participants in Factor 3 were also less willing to adopt reclaimed water, but felt that its use for non‐potable purposes would be acceptable. The final group, those in Factor 4 focused more on the cost efficiency and sustainability of reclaimed water, finding it acceptable on those grounds. However, they thought that decisions on its use should be the building owners' prerogative rather than the BFMs. The implications of these findings with respect to encouraging reclaimed water use in commercial office buildings are discussed.

Evapotranspiration and land surface temperature of typical urban green spaces in a semi-humid region: Implications for green management

Ecological deterioration and water scarcity motivate people to seek a balance between ecological reserves and water consumption in cities located in Semi-humid regions. This study is designed to develop a method for evaluating cooling water-saving characteristics of green space structures. Land surface temperature (TS), vegetation quantity (VQ) and evapotranspiration (ET) of typical green vegetation structures in 50 plots with an average area of 10,000 m2 were studied. Parameters were obtained based on data from three temporal remote sensing images; the surface energy balance algorithm for land (SEBAL) model, single-channel algorithm, and normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI) were utilized in the calculation. The relationships between the TS, VQ, and ET of green land were explored using regression analysis. A comprehensive index (EWI) was proposed to evaluate the cooling and water-saving abilities of different green space structures. Based on assessment results, species were classified into three: good (EWI ≥ 0.795), common (0.795 > EWI ≥ 0.419), and weak (EWI < 0.419). The characteristics of 17 species or species compositions with good cooling and water-saving abilities were summarized as: 1) a mix of the arbor, shrub, and herb, and 2) complete cover of green space by shrub.

Social values of water resources: Analyzing its spatial distribution characteristics and influencing factors using an ESSR model

Identifying the spatial distribution characteristics and influencing factors (SDC-IF) of the social value of water resources (SVWR) within a basin is an effective means to realize the dynamic regulation of water resources. In this paper, the concept of the SVWR was based on energy flow in the water resources social subsystem. Spatial econometric methods were initially introduced into the study of the SVWR to establish an emergy-spatial autocorrelation-spatial regression (ESSR) model to explore the above problem. The study area, the Yellow River Basin (YRB), was used to verify model applicability, in which the analysis highlighted three key findings: 1) The Moran’s I of the SVWR exceeded 0, indicating the SVWR had spatial correlation in the YRB. 2) The SVWR in provinces (regions) and cities were 30.76–32.87 and 24.88–30.67 yuan/m3, respectively, and its spatial distribution in the YRB was non-uniform, highlighting inequity in current water allocation. 3) The greatest spatial influencing factors of the SVWR in provinces (regions) were agriculture and forestry water inputs, whereas it was domestic water consumption in cities. The factors with the least influence were the employees of agriculture-forestry-stockbreeding-fishery; these should be considered in future water resources management. The findings show that the dynamic equilibrium regulation of water resources in the basin can be realized by adjusting the SDC-IF of SVWR, contributing to the fair distribution of water resources. In addition, the model may provide technical references for similar studies in other watersheds, contributing to the sustainable development of global water resources.

Household water consumption on the outskirts of Mexico City

This research paper sets out to identify if household water inequality consumption in Mexico City is expressed itself in a spatial distribution pattern. The methodology is based on spatial data analysis performed on Geoda software. Data were obtained from the city’s water operating agency for 2019. The results reveal that exist a household water consumption’ spatial pattern: households located in the central-western area register a high consumption of water, while those in peripheral areas of the southern and southeastern register a lower consumption. This pattern confirms that water consumption increases as households move from the poorest periphery to the central area of the city. These findings suggest the urgency of the city’s public water utility to adopt strategies to reduce discrimination in the poorest areas. Thus, this research contributes to closing the information gaps on inequality water consumption in cities in developing countries.

Urban evapotranspiration estimation based on anthropogenic activities and modified Penman-Monteith model

Urban evapotranspiration (ET) is an essential part of the hydrological cycle. A complete understanding of urban ET is necessary to understand the interaction between the atmosphere and the urban surface. However, estimating urban ET is challenging due to the influence of urban surface heterogeneity and human activities in urban areas. Therefore, this paper proposed an improved multisource parallel model (PM-urban) based on the Penman-Monteith model, which is suitable for the ET estimation for the underlying surface of the city. The PM-urban model takes into account the violent human activities in the city, and its main characteristics are: (1) the anthropogenic heat flux (AHF) was included in the surface energy balance formula; (2) The building water dissipation was considered. In this paper, taking Shenzhen, one of the cities with the fastest urbanization process globally, as an example, seven urban ET maps of Shenzhen were generated using Landsat 8 images. The model was verified using pan evaporation data corrected by complementary relationships. The results showed that: (1) The ET of each land use type has the following relationship: water body > vegetation > bare soil > no building impervious surface, and the value of building water dissipation varies due to the height and type of buildings significant; (2) The PM-urban model that considers AHF is better than the original model that ignores AHF; (3) This model can describe the characteristics of urban ET well and explain the phenomenon of high water consumption in cities. Our research results provide a new perspective for calculating the urban ET, which can be applied to urban management, planning, and reducing the urban heat island effect.

Determining the Regional Carrying Capacity of the Wuhan City Circle Based on the Improved Ecological Footprint Method

AbstractThis study builds upon the traditional ecological footprint model by adding two new accounts of resource flows and using two new calculating method. This first account concerns water resources and accounts for water consumption in cities. The second account tracks basic types of pollutant accounts. Energy theory and net primary productivity were used to calculate the ecological footprint. Aiming at the problem of application in city, a city hectare spatial scale was used and a regional carrying capacity correction parameter was referenced. This framework provides insight into calculations of the bearing capacity of certain areas. The Wuhan City Circle was used as a case study with the objectives of calculating the ecological footprint and regional carrying capacity and analyzing its spatiotemporal evolution and capacity for sustainable development. The results indicated that from 2000 to 2015, the average annual rate of decline of the carrying capacity of the Wuhan City Circle was 9.18%, and from 2015 to 2017, the average annual rate of increase was 38.91%. The ecological footprints of fossil energy and build‐up land accounts increased over the years, exposing problems with land and energy utilization in the Wuhan City Circle. The continuous decline of the water resources carrying capacity reminds policy makers to pay attention to the protection of water areas. These results can help policy makers integrate historical data to adjust existing plans and make more specific future plans.

Portraying the Water Crisis in Iranian Newspapers: An Approach Using Structure Query Language (SQL)

Water is a valuable resource for which demand often exceeds supply in dry climates. Managing limited water resources becomes increasingly difficult in circumstances of recurring drought, rising populations, rapid urbanisation, industrial development, and financial constraints, such as occur in Iran. Newspapers both report on and influence people’s understanding of water-related issues. An analysis was undertaken of two major Iranian daily newspapers over a 7-year period. Structure Query Language (SQL) was employed to identify relationships among a total of 1275 records/fields which were extracted from 84 water-related news items. They were analysed for message, contributor, spatiality and allocated space. Of the water-related items, wetlands comprised 33% (class), public awareness 54% (message), local level 56% (spatiality), and authorities 53% (contributor). Space allocation on each page was mostly <40% (94% of items). Four examples were highlighted of ambitious engineering projects adopted in response to water distribution issues. It is concluded that the general lack of educating messages about water use efficiency in rural areas and water consumption in cities does not assist in developing positive water-saving local behaviours. Newspapers could be a useful tool in a broader strategy for addressing and managing the demand side of the water crisis in Iran.

Saving water in cities: Assessing policies for residential water demand management in four cities in Europe

Policies for water demand management (WDM) have evolved in recent decades as an important strategy to reduce water consumption in cities. The objective of this study is to identify what WDM policies have been most effective, based on the perspectives of water utilities and experts. To this end, four cities with a low per capita residential water usage were identified: Berlin, Copenhagen, Tallinn and Zaragoza. A mixed-methods approach, including a questionnaire for water utility officials, semi-structured interviews, and review of secondary data and information, was used to identify successful policies. Results show that residential consumption from 1995 to 2015 has reduced in all four cities, irrespective of which policies were perceived to be more or less effective, though savings have been larger for cities with a larger number of perceived effective policies. WDM policies rated as highest-impact were renovation and maintenance of networks, and campaigns for water-saving technologies, followed by universal installation of water meters, rapid leak detection, public awareness campaigns, and municipal regulations. Tariff reforms were mentioned as impactful only in one case. However, lowering the level of urban water use by too much may lead to technological and financial challenges for water utilities.

Urban water consumption and its influencing factors in China: Evidence from 286 cities

Factors that affect water consumption should be identified to develop effective public policies. However, factors influencing domestic water consumption in cities in China, particularly on a national scale, are unclear. In this study, urban water consumption and its influencing factors in 286 municipal cities in China were analysed by using conditional inference trees and the random forest method. Results showed that water consumption (per capita per day) of 130 cities had changed significantly (decrease: 69; increase: 61) from 2000 to 2015. Of the 286 cities studied, 112 were classified as low-water consumption cities with water consumption below 70 L per capita per day. In addition, water consumption per capita per day in China was found to be highly affected by meteorological factors, socioeconomic status, water supply and conservation factors. The factors influencing water consumption also varied across different cities. In high-consumption cities, water consumption per capita per day was strongly influenced by precipitation, water conservation investment, water heater for showering or bathing per household and gross domestic product per capita. In medium- and low-consumption cities, water consumption per capita per day was affected by water supply capacity and socioeconomic status, including gross domestic product per capita, education received and Engel’s coefficient. Significant disparities in these factors suggest that different policies regarding water consumption should be implemented across China. In high-consumption cities, investment in water conservation should be continued to ensure sustainable use by reducing water consumption. In low-consumption cities, water supply capacity should be improved to guarantee water availability for basic health and hygiene requirements.

Estimation of virtual water consumption structure and water efficiency in cities and rural areas of Xinjiang

Water footprint based on virtual water is a comprehensive index and gives a true reflection of the share of human consumption. It effectively measures human consumption of water resources. This paper investigated virtual water consumption structure by using water footprint, and estimated water efficiency through calculations of hydrology water scarcity index, social water scarcity index and water intensive use degree in cities and rural areas of Xinjiang from 1995 to 2007. The results indicated a 45.4% increase in total water footprint, rising from 108.95×108 m3 in 1995 to 158.40×108 m3 in 2007. The average diversity index of virtual water consumption in cities exceeded that in rural areas by 0.69 suggesting more reasonable virtual water consumption structure in cities. The increasing diversity index of consumption across different social groups indicated gradual diversification of citizen’s consumables and improvement in diet structure. There was an increase in water intensive use degree from 7.58 in 1995 to 22.22 in 2007. It indicated marked improvements in the development of water efficiency.

The influence of city water consumption on the water balance and quality of drinking water supply with implications for altered operating rules

In the period 1990–2006, the decrease in water consumption of Tallinn, the capital of Estonia, determined both the input and output of the water balance of Lake Ülemiste, the drinking water reservoir of the city as well as its hydraulic retention time (HRT). In 2006, the city's water consumption accounted for only a quarter of that in 1990.The role of regulated inflow in the water balance decreased and that of catchment run-off increased. Lake HRT increased four-fold. Before the 1990s, Lake Ülemiste resembled a river, now it is more lake-like. Changes in the water regime were correlated with the decline in concentrations of organic matter and chloride suggesting a likely causal relationship between them. Managerial challenges turned on finding new functions for upstream reservoirs and on the opportunity to refill the lake with better quality raw water.

Groundwater contamination by nitrates in the city of Konya, (Turkey): A GIS perspective

Groundwater is an essential drinking water source in the city of Konya, Turkey. Approximately 75% of the city's water consumption has been supplied from 198 groundwater wells for the last six years. Nitrate ( NO 3 − ) is one of the important water quality parameters and was measured in the water samples taken from 139 wells in 1998 and from 156 wells in 2001 within the study area of 427.5 km 2. To evaluate the nitrate data, a vector-based GIS software package ArcView GIS 3.2 was used. A hardcopy map of the city was digitized in the UTM projection system. The locations of the wells were obtained by a hand-held Global Positioning System (GPS) receiver. According to the maps produced, nitrate concentrations generally tend to increase in the city center, the average concentrations being 2.2 and 16.1 mg/L for the years of 1998 and 2001, respectively. A statistical correlation procedure was also applied to well depths and nitrate concentrations. As a result, correlation coefficients of 0.259 and 0.261 were obtained for data collected in 1998 and 2001. It is concluded that the distribution of nitrate concentrations is not correlated with well depths within the study area.

Saving Big Bucks with Your Log Sheets

This article speaks to a common problem in a lot of industrial and institutional boilerhouses. Most boilerhouses do an excellent job at collecting information. Circular chart recorders churn out pressures, temperatures, and flows for everything from steam to natural gas to city water consumption. At most facilities, this stuff all gets chucked into a drawer or file cabinet daily. Have you ever wondered why you collect and record what you do? What were people thinking when the existing logs were set up? This article attempts to challenge the original thought process and hopes to evoke in the reader a renewed vision of what should be collected, how, and then what can be done with it. The goal of this article is not to define new and expensive data acquisition or control system projects. It is instead to show how to develop systems that only require paper, pencils, and people who are motivated and care. These people are probably already being paid to do most of this work. Experience is that if these people are treated with respect and given some simple tools they will do amazing things beyond what was thought possible. This is a low-tech humanistic approach that has more » a fabulous rate of return. It`s also something that can be immediately implemented. « less

The 1980–81 Drought in Southeastern New York

This paper examines moisture conditions in southeastern New York during 1980 and early 1981. Precipitation and moisture budget calculations indicate that a net water deficit did exist at that time, but it was not severe enough to account for the drought warning that was issued. Despite this fact, reservoir levels dropped in early 1981 to their lowest value since the last major East Coast drought in 1965. Investigation of New York City water-consumption levels over the previous 40 years indicates that a major factor in the water deficit was the dependence on above-average rainfall for the stability of the water supply. This dependence was a major contributing factor to the similar problems that took place in the falls of 1981, 1982, and 1983.