Water-based Aerobic Training Research Articles

Aerobic and combined water-based trainings in older women: effects on strength and cardiorespiratory outcomes.

The aim of the present study was to investigate the muscular and cardiorespiratory adaptations of two water-based training programs in older women. Volunteers were divided between a water-based aerobic training (WBA; N.=13), water-based combined training (WBC; N.=11) or an active control group (CG; N.=9) and those assigned to WBA and WBC exercised twice a week for 12 weeks. All outcomes of interest were assessed prior and after the intervention. The data were analyzed using Generalized Estimating Equations (GEE), and Bonferroni post-hoc test (α=0.05). Aerobic training was performed at the percentage of the heart rate corresponding to the anaerobic threshold and resistance training during WBC was performed with sets at maximal effort. Improvements were observed for the maximal knee extension dynamic strength (1RM) and oxygen uptake (VO<inf>2</inf>) corresponding to the second ventilatory threshold for both WBA and WBC (1RM: 16±12% vs. 15±16%; VO<inf>2</inf>: 20±24% vs. 23±13%, respectively), whereas VO2 peak improved in all three groups (WBA: 23±21%; WBC: 18±9%; CG: 7±16%). No increase was found for horizontal chest press 1RM (P>0.05). These results suggest that WBA, WBC and CG are effective to improve cardiorespiratory fitness, however, only water-based training programs (WBA and WBC) appear capable of improving the maximal strength of the lower limbs.

Water aerobics training: selection and control of the exercise intensity using the Borg scale

To evaluate the opportunity of Borg scale using for applying and monitoring the aerobic training intensity in the pool as well as the relationship between the Borg scale and the heart rate (HR) in the aquatic environment. The study involved 11 healthy individuals (mean age 46.4±7.5 years). After a cardiopulmonary test on a treadmill and a probation lesson the training was conducted in the pool using a set of basic aerobic exercises lasting 45 minutes. During training the subjects had to maintain a load level corresponding to 12-14 points on the Borg scale. Every 10 minutes of the main training part the heart rate was calculated and the rating of perceived exertion (RPE) was determined according to the Borg scale. The average heart rate in the main part of the training was 126.8±14.0 beats/min. The intensity of aerobic exercise was 82% of the maximum heart rate determined during the cardiopulmonary test and 68% of the reserve heart rate which corresponded to a high level of intensity. Between the heart rate and the Borg scale a significant correlation was found in the first period of training (r=0.67, p<0.02). At RPE 12-13 in almost 1/2 cases the subjects felt a subjectively lower intensity of the load than they actually performed (by heart rate) while at RPE 14 a high percentage of coincidences was observed between different measurement methods (p<0.05). During water aerobics training the use of the Borg scale to prescribe and maintain a level of exercise allows to achieve a sufficient intensity level which is necessary to improve cardiorespiratory fitness and physical performance in order to influence risk factors for cardiovascular disease. The Borg Scale as a stand-alone method of controlling intensity when using water-based aerobic training, especially with high-intensity training should be used with caution. Further investigation is needed to determine the relation between subjective measures of exercise intensity and HR and validity of their use during water aerobics training.

Relationship between Oxygen Uptake, Heart Rate, and Perceived Effort in an Aquatic Incremental Test in Older Women.

Different parameters can be used to control the intensity of aerobic exercises, a choice that should consider the population and exercise environment targeted. Therefore, our study aimed to verify the relationship between oxygen uptake (VO2), heart rate (HR), rating of perceived exertion (RPE), and cadence during an aquatic incremental test in older women. Nine older women (64.3 ± 4.4 years) engaged in a water-based aerobic training performed an aquatic incremental test using the stationary running exercise (cadence increases of 15 b·min−1 every 2 min) until participants’ volitional exhaustion. VO2, HR, and RPE data were measured, and the percentage of peak VO2 (%VO2peak) and percentage of maximal HR (%HRmax) were calculated. Linear and polynomial regression analyses were performed (α = 0.05). Polynomial regressions revealed the best adjustments for all analyses. Data showed a significant relationship (p < 0.001) between %VO2peak and %HRmax (r = 0.921), %VO2peak and RPE (r = 0.870), and %HRmax and RPE (r = 0.878). Likewise, significant relationships between cadence (p < 0.001) and %VO2peak (r = 0.873), %HRmax (r = 0.874), and RPE (r = 0.910) were also observed. In summary, the physiological, subjective, and mechanical variables investigated were highly associated during an aquatic incremental test to exhaustion in older women. Therefore, these different parameters can be employed to adequately prescribe water-based programs according to preference and availability.

Short and long-term effects of water-based aerobic and concurrent training on cardiorespiratory capacity and strength of older women

Studies show that, in the short term, water-based aerobic training (WAT) promotes the same strength gains as water-based concurrent training (WCT). In addition, it is known that some training progression strategy must be employed after the first weeks of training in order to continue stimulating neuromuscular gains. The aim of this paper was to compare the effects of three water-based training on cardiorespiratory capacity and strength of older women in short and long-terms. Fifty-seven participants were randomized into the groups: 1) aerobic training (AT); 2) concurrent training whose resistance training progressed to the use of resistive equipment (CTRE); and 3) concurrent training whose resistance training progressed to multiple sets (CTMS). Participants trained twice a week for 16weeks. An incremental treadmill test and the one-repetition maximal test of knee extensors were performed before and after 8 and 16weeks. Peak oxygen consumption showed similar increases from pre to post-16weeks (AT: 9%, CTRE: 11%, CTMS: 5%). Oxygen consumption at the second ventilatory threshold and strength were increased from pre to post-8weeks (AT: 15%, CTRE: 16%, CTMS: 3% and AT: 9%, CTRE: 5%, CTMS: 9%, respectively) and from post-8 to post-16weeks (AT: 6%, CTRE: 3%, CTMS: 12% and AT: 4%, CTRE: 8%, CTMS: 4%, respectively). In conclusion, the three training programs promoted similar increases in the cardiorespiratory capacity and WAT promoted similar strength gains as WCT in short and long terms. Moreover, the use of resistive equipment and the increase in the number of sets are effective progression strategies.

Long-Term Effects of Three Water-Based Training Programs on Resting Blood Pressure in Older Women.

The aim of the study was to compare the effects of three water-based training on blood pressure (BP) in older women. A total of 57 participants were randomized into the following groups: (a)aerobic training (AT), (b)concurrent training in which resistance training progresses to the use of resistive equipment (CTRE), and (c)concurrent training in which resistance training progresses to multiple sets (CTMS). The participants trained twice a week for 16 weeks. Systolic BP decreased from pretraining toafter8weeks of training and, subsequently, to after 16 weeks of training (AT: -6.53mmHg, CTRE: -10.45mmHg, and CTMS: -10.73mmHg). Diastolic BP decreased from pretraining to after 8 and 16 weeks of training (AT: -6.23mmHg, CTRE: -4.61mmHg, and CTMS: -6.19mmHg). Furthermore, 16% of the AT participants, 23% of the CTRE participants, and 28.5% of the CTMS participants were no longer classified as hypertensive. Water-based aerobic and concurrent training are efficient nonpharmacological measures to reduce BP in older women.

Randomized Clinical Trial of Water-Based Aerobic Training in Older Women (WATER Study): Functional Capacity and Quality of Life Outcomes.

The purpose of this study was to investigate the effects of 2 water-based aerobic training programs on functional capacity and quality of life (QoL) of older women. Randomized clinical trial. A total of 41 women (64.3 [3.1]y) were randomized into a continuous (CTG) and an interval (ITG) water-based aerobic training group. Training programs were performed with exercise intensity based on rating of perceived exertion throughout 12 weeks (twice a week). Functional tests with and without dual-task and QoL questionnaire were applied pretraining and posttraining. Per protocol and intention to treat analysis were conducted using generalized estimating equations, with Bonferroni post hoc test (α = .05). The per protocol analysis showed an increase in the 30-second chair stand (6%[12%] vs 18% [13%]), 6-minute walk (4% [7%] vs 2% [8%]), and 5-m habitual gait velocity (6% [11%] vs 4% [7%]) tests after CTG and ITG training groups. In addition, the intention to treat analysis revealed an increase in the 30-second chair stand test (7% [13%] vs 12% [13%]) and physical domain of QoL (8% [26%] vs 14% [22%]) after CTG and ITG training groups, as well as an increase in the gait velocity with verbal task after CTG (6% [11%]). Both water-based aerobic training programs induced similar improvements in the functional capacity and maintained the QoL perception in older women.

The beneficial effects of a water-based aerobic exercise session on the blood lipids of women with dyslipidemia are independent of their training status

OBJECTIVES:To evaluate the acute effects of a session of water-based aerobic exercise on the blood lipid levels of women with dyslipidemia and to compare these results according to their training status.METHOD:Fourteen premenopausal women with dyslipidemia, aged 40–50 years, participated in two water-based aerobic exercise sessions, the first when they were generally sedentary and the second after they were trained with a water-based aerobic training program for 12 weeks. Both experimental sessions were performed using the same protocol, lasted 45 min, and incorporated an interval method, alternating 3 min at a rating of perceived exertion (RPE) of 13 and 2 min at an RPE of 9. Total cholesterol (TC), triglycerides (TG), low-density lipoprotein (LDL), high-density lipoprotein (HDL), and lipoprotein lipase enzyme (LPL) were obtained through venous blood collection before and immediately after each session. A generalized estimating equation method and Bonferroni tests were conducted (with time and training status as factors) for statistical analyses.RESULTS:At enrollment, the mean age of the participants was 46.57 years (95% confidence interval [CI] 44.81−48.34). The statistical analyses showed a significant time effect for all variables (TC: p=0.008; TG: p=0.012; HDL: p<0.001; LPL: p<0.001) except for LDL (p=0.307). However, the training status effect was not significant for any variable (TC: p=0.527; TG: p=0.899; HDL: p=0.938; LDL: p=0.522; LPL: p=0.737). These results indicate that the TC and TG levels reduced and the HDL and LPL concentrations increased from pre- to post-session in similar magnitudes in both sedentary and trained women.CONCLUSIONS:A single water-based aerobic exercise session is sufficient and effective to beneficially modify the lipid profile of women with dyslipidemia, regardless of their training status.

Land-based versus water-based walking programs in elderly women with knee osteoarthritis: preliminary results of a randomized clinical trial

Introduction: Knee osteoarthritis (kOA) is a chronic degenerativedisorder. Aerobic exercise programs have been effectivetreatments to reduce symptoms in kOA. However, studiescomparing land- and water-based interventions did notcontrol for the intensity of exercise programs. Objectives:Investigate the effects of walking programs with a controlledprogressive workload in water compared to land in terms ofpain, functional and physical performance, and quality oflife in elderly women with kOA. Materials and Methods: Thewalking training programs were divided into two groups:1) land-based aerobic training (LB); and 2) water-based aerobictraining (WB). Each training session was divided intothree phases: 1 – Warm-up (5 minutes): stretching exercises;2 - Training (30 to 55 minutes): walking at target heart rate;3 – Cool-down (5 minutes). Sixteen elderly women with kOAunderwent assessments of functional performance using thesix-minute walk test (6MWT) and the stair test (ST), whilephysical performance, maximum oxygen consumption (VO-2max) and anaerobic threshold (AT) were determined during aprogressive test. kOA was assessed by the Western Ontario andMcMaster Universities Osteoarthritis Index (WOMAC), andquality of life was assessed using the Medical Outcomes Study36-Item Short Form Health Survey (SF-36). All parameters werereevaluated after 12 weeks of aerobic training that consisted ofwalking (duration: 30-55 min.; intensity: 72-82% of maximalheart rate). Results: No significant difference between the LBand WB groups was found. There was a reduction in self-reportedpain (by WOMAC), increased performance in the 6MWTand ST, increased VO2max and VO2max corresponding to ATand improved quality of life (by SF-36) in both groups aftertraining compared with before intervention. Conclusion:Land-based aerobic training was as effective as its water-basedequivalent in clinical, physical and functional parameters inelderly women with knee OA.Keywords: Osteoarthritis of knee; Elderly; Aerobic training.

Effects of Progressive vs. Non-progressive Water-based Aerobic Training on Type 2 Diabetes Control: a Randomized Clinical Trial

Effects of Progressive vs. Non-progressive Water-based Aerobic Training on Type 2 Diabetes Control: a Randomized Clinical Trial

Water-Based Aerobic and Resistance Training as a Treatment to Improve the Lipid Profile of Women With Dyslipidemia: A Randomized Controlled Trial.

Background: Regular exercise is recommended for the treatment of dyslipidemia. The aquatic environment presents some beneficial characteristics for patients suffering from dyslipidemia. However, it is unknown which modality promotes better results. This study aims to compare the effects of water-based aerobic training (WA) and water-based resistance training (WR) on lipid profile of dyslipidemic elderly women. Methods: Sixty-nine dyslipidemic elderly women participated in this 3-arm randomized controlled clinical trial with groups in parallel. The interventions were WA, WR, and control group, with 2 weekly sessions for 10 weeks. Total cholesterol (TC), triglycerides, low-density lipoprotein, high-density lipoprotein (HDL) levels, and TC/HDL ratio, were determined before and after interventions. Results: Intention-to-treat analysis showed that WA and WR participants obtained similar decreases in TC (-10.0% and -9.6%, respectively), triglycerides (-13.4% and -15.7%, respectively), low-density lipoprotein (-16.1% and -16.9%, respectively), TC/HDL (-16.9% and -23.4%, respectively) and increases in HDL (7.6% and 16.9%, respectively). The control group maintained their TC and low-density lipoprotein levels unchanged, whereas triglycerides and TC/HDL were increased (3.6% and 11.3%, respectively), and HDL decreases 4.8%. Conclusions: WA and WR improve similarly the lipid profile of dyslipidemic elderly women, representing interesting nonpharmacological tools in the treatment of dyslipidemia.

Effects of Water-Based Aerobic Interval Training in Patients With COPD: A RANDOMIZED CONTROLLED TRIAL.

Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease promotes systemic repercussions, which can be minimized with physical exercise. This study investigated the effects of a water-based aerobic interval training program on the autonomic modulation of heart rate (HR), quality of life (QoL), and functional capacity (FC) of patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Nineteen patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease were enrolled in this randomized clinical trial and allocated to either the usual care group (n = 9) or training group (n = 10). Before and after 24 sessions of water-based physical training, the patients underwent evaluation of autonomic modulation of HR by analyzing the HR variability, QoL using the St George's Respiratory Questionnaire, and FC using 6-min walk test distance. The results showed significant improvement when comparing the variables of HR variability, QoL, and FC in the training group in the pre- and post-training conditions (P < .05). In the usual care group, there was no significant difference for any of the variables. Negative correlations were found between HR variability and QoL (r =-0. 55; P = .01) and 6-min walk test distance and QoL (r =-0.49; P = .02). Water-based physical training promoted beneficial adaptations in the autonomic modulation of HR, QoL, and FC of patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease.

Water-based aerobic training improves strength parameters and cardiorespiratory outcomes in elderly women.

The aim of the present study was to compare the effects of water-based aerobic training and water-based resistance training on muscular strength and cardiorespiratory fitness in older women. Sixty-nine individuals were randomized into the following three groups: the water-based aerobic training (WA, n = 23) group, the water-based resistance training (WR, n = 23) group, and the control group (CG, n = 23). Participants were trained two times per week for 10 weeks. The trainings presented a linear periodization with an increase in the volume-intensity relation. Maximal dynamic muscular strength and the cardiorespiratory fitness were evaluated before the start of training and after 10 weeks of training. Only the WA group showed an increase in maximal oxygen consumption (13.8%) and oxygen consumption at the second ventilatory threshold (16.4%). Maximal dynamic strength of knee extensors improved in 10.6% of WA, 8.0% of WR, and 4.7% of CG participants, without any difference between the groups. Maximal dynamic strength of knee flexors was increased in 14.1% of WA and in 17.7% of WR participants; however, it remains unchanged in CG participants. No differences were observed in resting heart rate, peak heart rate, heart rate at the second ventilatory threshold and maximal dynamic strength of shoulder horizontal flexors. It was concluded that WA seems to be more efficient for improvement in cardiorespiratory responses, and both WA and WR were efficient for development of maximal dynamic strength of knee flexion and extension.

Water-Based Aerobic Training Successfully Improves Lipid Profile of Dyslipidemic Women: A Randomized Controlled Trial

ABSTRACTPurpose: This study aimed to investigate the effects of water-based aerobic training on the lipid profile and lipoprotein lipase (LPL) levels in premenopausal women with dyslipidemia. Method: Forty women were randomly assigned to: aquatic training (WA; n = 20) or a control group (CG; n = 20). The WA group underwent 12 weeks of water-based interval aerobic training twice a week at intensities ranging from 9 to 15 on the Borg Scale of Perceived Exertion. Total cholesterol (TC), triglycerides (TG), high- (HDL) and low- (LDL) density lipoprotein, TC/HDL ratio, LPL levels, and peak oxygen consumption (VO2peak) were evaluated before and after 12 weeks in both groups. Results: The WA group elicited decreases in TC (9%; effect size [ES] = 0.69; 95% CI [0.05, 1.33]), LDL (16%; ES = 0.78; 95% CI [0.13, 1.42]), and the TC/HDL ratio (17%; ES = 1.13; 95% CI [0.46, 1.79]), as well as increases in VO2peak (10%; ES = 0.64; 95% CI [0.002, 1.27]) and HDL (10%; ES = 0.28; 95% CI [−0.35. 0.90]), without significant changes in TG (ES = 0.16; 95% CI [−0.46, 1.79]) and LPL (ES = 0.36; 95% CI [−0.27, 0.98]) levels. In the CG, no statistically significant changes in any of these variables were found (TC, ES = 0.19, 95% CI [−0.43, 0.82]; LDL, ES = 0.22, 95% CI [−0.40, 0.85]; HDL, ES = 0.05, 95% CI [−0.57, 0.67]; TG, ES = 0.09, 95% CI [−0.53, 0.71]; TC/HDL ratio, ES = 0.20, 95% CI [−0.42, 0.82]; LPL, ES = 0.02, 95% CI [−0.60, 0.64]; VO2peak, ES = 0.20, 95% CI [−0.42, 0.82]). Conclusion: Water-based interval aerobic training positively affected the lipid profile in premenopausal dyslipidemic women.

Water-based aerobic and combined training in elderly women: Effects on functional capacity and quality of life

This study aimed to investigate the effects of two water-based training programs (aerobic and combined) and a non-periodized physical activity program on functional capacity and quality of life (QoL) of elderly women. Forty-one elderly female volunteers (65 ± 4 years) were divided into three groups: aerobic training group (WBA, n = 13), combined training (sequence: resistance/aerobic; WBC; n = 11) and a control group of non-periodized physical activity program (CG, n = 9). The participants performed the water-based trainings twice a week for 12 weeks. The resistance training sets were performed at maximal effort and the aerobic training was performed in the percentage of the heart rate corresponding to the anaerobic threshold (85–110%) determined in an aquatic progressive test. Assessments of QoL perception (WHOQOL-BREF) and functional tests 30-Second Chair Stand, 6-Minute Walk and 8-Foot Up-and-go were performed before and after training. The data were analyzed using Generalized Estimating Equations (GEE), and Bonferroni post-hoc test (α = 0.05). In CG, QoL perception in the physical domain decreased (12 ± 10%) and there was no difference in the other domains. On the other hand, QoL perception was significantly increased in the water-based training groups after the training period in the physical (WBC: 13 ± 16%), psychological (WBA: 9 ± 16%; WBC: 10 ± 11%), social relationships (WBA: 19 ± 42%; WBC: 16 ± 21%) and environmental (WBA: 10 ± 17%; WBC: 16 ± 28%) domains and overall QoL (WBA: 17 ± 22%). No significant difference was observed in the physical domain for WBA and in the overall for WBC. Significant improvements were observed for all groups in the functional tests 30-Second Chair Stand (WBA: 32 ± 11%; WBC: 24 ± 14%; CG: 20 ± 9), 6-Minute Walk (WBA: 10 ± 7%; WBC: 7 ± 6%; CG: 7 ± 5%) and 8-Foot Up-and-go (WBA: 11 ± 5%; WBC: 10 ± 9%; CG: 10 ± 6%). Based on the results observed in this study, it can be concluded that both water-based trainings (aerobic and combined) are effective in improving functional capacity and QoL perception of elderly women. Although non-periodized physical activities seem to be sufficient to positively modify the functional capacity of this population, they are not efficient in improving QoL perception.

The Effect of Water-Based Aerobic Training on the Dynamic Balance and Walking Speed of Obese Elderly Men with Low Back Pain

The Effect of Water-Based Aerobic Training on the Dynamic Balance and Walking Speed of Obese Elderly Men with Low Back Pain

Short-term water-based aerobic training promotes improvements in aerobic conditioning parameters of mature women

Aging is accompanied by a decrease in aerobic capacity. Therefore, physical training has been recommended to soften the effects of advancement age. The aim of this study was to assess the effects of a short-term water-based aerobic training on resting heart rate (HRrest), heart rate corresponding to anaerobic threshold (HRAT), peak heart rate (HRpeak), percentage value of HRAT in relation to HRpeak and test duration (TD) of mature women. Twenty-two women (65.91 ± 4.83 years) were submitted to a five-week water-based interval aerobic training. Aerobic capacity parameters were evaluated through an aquatic incremental test. After training, there was an increase in TD (16%) and HRAT percentage in relation to HRpeak (4.68%), and a reduction of HRrest (9%). It is concluded that a water-based aerobic interval training prescribed through HRAT of only five weeks is able to promote improvements in aerobic capacity of mature women.

Dynamic exercise programs (aerobic capacity and/or muscle strength training) in patients with rheumatoid arthritis.

An up-to-date overview of the effectiveness and safety of dynamic exercise therapy (exercise therapy with a sufficient intensity, duration, and frequency to establish improvement in aerobic capacity and/or muscle strength) is lacking. To assess the effectiveness and safety of short-term (< three months) and long-term (> three months) dynamic exercise therapy programs (aerobic capacity and/or muscle strength training), either land or water-based, for people with RA. To do this we updated a previous Cochrane review (van den Ende 1998) and made categories for the different forms of dynamic exercise programs. A literature search (to December 2008) within various databases was performed in order to identify randomised controlled trials (RCTs). RCTs that included an exercise program fulfilling the following criteria were selected: a) frequency at least twice weekly for > 20 minutes; b) duration > 6 weeks; c) aerobic exercise intensity > 55% of the maximum heart rate and/or muscle strengthening exercises starting at 30% to 50% of one repetition maximum; and d) performed under supervision. Moreover, the RCT included one or more of the following outcome measures: functional ability, aerobic capacity, muscle strength, pain, disease activity or radiological damage. Two review authors independently selected eligible studies, rated the methodological quality, and extracted data. A qualitative analysis (best-evidence synthesis) was performed and, where appropriate, a quantitative data analysis (pooled effect sizes). In total, eight studies were included in this updated review (two additional studies). Four of the eight studies fulfilled at least 8/10 methodological criteria. In this updated review four different dynamic exercise programs were found: (1) short-term, land-based aerobic capacity training, which results show moderate evidence for a positive effect on aerobic capacity (pooled effect size 0.99 (95% CI 0.29 to 1.68). (2) short-term, land-based aerobic capacity and muscle strength training, which results show moderate evidence for a positive effect on aerobic capacity and muscle strength (pooled effect size 0.47 (95% CI 0.01 to 0.93). (3) short-term, water-based aerobic capacity training, which results show limited evidence for a positive effect on functional ability and aerobic capacity. (4) long-term, land-based aerobic capacity and muscle strength training, which results show moderate evidence for a positive effect on aerobic capacity and muscle strength. With respect to safety, no deleterious effects were found in any of the included studies. Based on the evidence, aerobic capacity training combined with muscle strength training is recommended as routine practice in patients with RA.