Waste Electrical And Electronic Equipment Research Articles

Recycling Technologies for Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment (WEEE) in Developing Countries: A Systematic Review

First-world countries have been applying modern and efficient technologies to recycle their waste electrical and electronic equipment (WEEE). However, this scenario is not the same for developing economies. Therefore, this systematic literature review aimed to identify the main WEEE recycling technologies in developing countries. To formulate the research question, its components, and associated issues, the PICOC technique was used. Additionally, a search equation applicable to the Scopus database was formulated, inclusion and exclusion criteria were defined, and the selection and screening phase of sources was represented in the PRISMA 2020 flow diagram, resulting in a final sample of 51 review and original articles. The results showed that global WEEE generation has been increasing in recent decades, with projections following the same trend. Furthermore, these wastes possess a high level of toxicity when improperly managed, as is the case in developing nations (mainly in Asia and Africa), where WEEE recycling technologies are mostly very basic, predominated by manual disassembly, open-air burning, and informal acid leaching. There are some exceptions (formal sector) where modern and safe technologies are applied. Finally, it was concluded that informal WEEE recycling predominates in less developed countries, which has a very harmful potential for environmental and public health components. In contrast, the formal sector is relatively small, due to factors such as limited public and private budgets, scarce infrastructure, and lack of environmental regulatory controls, among others.

Stakeholder Responsibilities in Reverse Supply Chains: a Literature Review with an EPR Orientation

Objective: The objective of this study was to contextualize the literature on stakeholder responsibilities in the reverse supply chain (RSC) of waste, in the context of Extended Producer Responsibility (EPR). Method: This comprises a Systematic Literature Review (SLR) based on the method of Tranfield et al. (2003). The articles were collected from the Science Direct, Web of Science and Scopus databases, using search strings previously defined in the research protocol. Results and Discussion: The research identified 65 relevant articles, highlighting the importance of EPR in assigning responsibility for CSR. Approximately 37% of the articles did not mention specific waste, while almost 40% focused on Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment (WEEE), highlighting the relevance of this topic Research Implications: Offered insights into the attribution of responsibilities in CSR and the application of EPR. In waste management, the results may influence how stakeholders share responsibilities, especially for WEEE. Theoretically, the research revealed gaps on EPR, especially in emerging economies. These findings can guide more effective public policies and strategies for waste management and sustainable practices. Originality/Value: Contributes to the literature by refining the extraction parameters in the context of CSR responsibility, highlighting an academic gap on the complexity of EPR. The originality lies in the critical analysis of terminology, highlighting the growing relevance of EPR in WEEE management, reflecting global interest, especially in emerging economies such as Brazil, China and India.

Challenges And Perspectives Of Electrical And Electronic Equipment Waste Management In The Republic Of Guinea

Most developing countries face enormous challenges in implementing sustainable waste electrical and electronic equipment (WEEE) management systems. Informal WEEE management practices in the Republic of Guinea have become a major challenge for the government and various stakeholders due to their impacts on the environment and health. The review article presents a close link between the WEEE and household solid waste (HSW) management system in Guinea, based on legislative and policy documents, research studies and reports published by national and international organizations, Directives and Conventions, and Ministry decrees. The article discusses topics such as the legal and regulatory framework, the current situation of HSW management and WEEE, the flow of the Guinean market for electrical and electronic equipment (EEE), and a strategic year of sustainable WEEE management in Guinea. The study results indicate that the country lacks effective strategies covering all stages of the product life cycle, particularly at the end of life. Economic and financial limitations are the important obstacles to WEEE formalization. Establishing resourced environmental government agencies for effective monitoring and auditing and appropriate sustainable WEEE management practices is the most important way forward.

Research on the recycling decision of WEEE in rural China under dual supervision

Against the backdrop of promoting green, low-carbon, and high-quality development, this paper aims to promote efficient recycling of waste electrical and electronic equipment (WEEE) in rural China. In this paper, considering the integrated development of urban and rural areas and the standardization of industrial recycling system, under the joint action of the extension of producer responsibility and “dual regulation” of supply and marketing cooperatives, the evolutionary game model and system dynamics model of three-level recycling network of farmers, supply and marketing cooperatives and retailers are established. The mechanism of the participants to promote the recycling of WEEE in rural areas is discussed and the strategic choices and interactive relationships of various entities in the evolutionary process were used to analyze through the evolutionary game method. Meanwhile, using the theory of system dynamics, the main influencing factors of different evolution stages and the dynamic change process of the system are analyzed. The results show that: (1) supply and marketing cooperatives, retailers, and farmers can initially tend to participate in and supervise the recycling of WEEE; however, (2) they can finally achieve strong supervision, actively undertake and participate in the recycling and stabilization stable strategy of rural WEEE depends on their benefits and cost of expenditure expenditures are reasonable. (3) The strategic choice of supply and marketing cooperatives has the most significant impact on the strategic choice of retailers and the strategic choice of retailers has the most significant impact on the strategic choice of farmers.

Methodology and Database for the Quantification of the Technical Recyclability of Electrical and Electronical Equipment Demonstrated on a Smartphone Case Study

Assessing a given product’s design and its recyclability using mass flow analysis based on the material separation and recovery rates of individual recycling processes under realistic conditions can support design decisions promoting better recyclability. EN 45555 defines the calculation of the technical recyclability of electrical and electronic equipment (EEE). However, the lack of specific recycling rates for material or processes often leads to either too small or too high recyclability values. Herein, an extensive database of such recycling rates is presented. Moreover, the quality of recycling is considered. The typical classification into “recycled” and “lost” is expanded into four categories, namely “circular”, “recycled”, “alternate material recovery” and “lost”. The recycling rate database includes yields for all four categories and covers 30 materials for 14 recycling processes relevant in waste EEE (WEEE) treatment. These data enable a detailed calculation of the recyclability of various EEE for multiple recycling scenarios covering the entire WEEE recycling chain. Fraunhofer IZM performed an internal critical review of the data. The recycling rates database can act as a solid foundation for comparing the recyclability of various electronics in different scenarios and recyclability indices. For example, the recyclability of typical smartphones is investigated comparing different dismantling and recycling scenarios highlighting the potential of both database and methodology.

Applying Circular Thermoeconomics for Sustainable Metal Recovery in PCB Recycling

The momentum of the Fourth Industrial Revolution is driving increased demand for certain specific metals. These include copper, silver, gold, and platinum group metals (PGMs), which have important applications in renewable energies, green hydrogen, and electronic products. However, the continuous extraction of these metals is leading to a rapid decline in their ore grades and, consequently, increasing the environmental impact of extraction. Hence, obtaining metals from secondary sources, such as waste electrical and electronic equipment (WEEE), has become imperative for both environmental sustainability and ensuring their availability. To evaluate the sustainability of the process, this paper proposes using an exergy approach, which enables appropriate allocation among co-products, as well as the assessment of exergy losses and the use of non-renewable resources. As a case study, this paper analyzes the recycling process of waste printed circuit boards (PCBs) by disaggregating the exergy cost into renewable and non-renewable sources, employing different exergy-based cost allocation methods for the mentioned metals. It further considers the complete life cycle of metals using the Circular Thermoeconomics methodology. The results show that, when considering the entire life cycle, between 47% and 53% of the non-renewable exergy is destroyed during recycling. Therefore, delaying recycling as much as possible would be the most desirable option for minimizing the use of non-renewable resources.

An approach to formalization of WEEE informal collectors: Collection model under a membership-based community

Informal collectors’ formalization has become a key challenge that developing countries such as China face in governing informal recycling. This study establishes an innovative collection model of waste electrical and electronic equipment (WEEE) under the membership community operation system, which integrates waste merchants into the formal recycling system in the form of members. Based on a Bass model of membership community development and an evolutionary game model between recyclers and waste merchants, respectively, this study uses system dynamics theory to simulate and analyze the model’s implementation effectiveness and influencing factors. We find that the membership community’s interpersonal promotion and customer relationship management strategies can increase waste merchants’ membership rate and membership loyalty, which is an effective way to incorporate waste merchants into the formal recycling system. Waste merchants’ main interest demands in the formalization process are to gain economic benefits and identity recognition, which motivate them to become members. Membership’s transaction cost establishes a long-term cooperative relationship between waste merchants and recyclers in the form of an economic contract. However, the potential losses from information sharing are the key factor restricting waste merchants from enrolling as members, which has also become the main obstacle to their formalization. This study provides a new theoretical and empirical basis for informal collectors’ formalization, which has important practical significance for WEEE recycling and management in developing countries.

Additive Manufacturing of Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment (WEEE) Produced From Acrylonitrile Butadiene Styrene (ABS)

Objective: To evaluate the feasibility of producing recycled acrylonitrile-butadiene-styrene (r-ABS) filaments from waste electrical and electronic equipment (W EEE) casings, specifically discarded monitors and televisions, and to compare their properties with those of virgin ABS. Theoretical Framework: The research was based on a literature review of additive manufacturing, WEEE recycling, and the thermal, mechanical, rheological, and microscopic characterizations of recycled polymers, with an emphasis on fused deposition modeling (FDM). Method: WEEE casings were collected and mechanically recycled to produce r-ABS filaments. These filaments were characterized and compared with virgin ABS filaments using infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), thermal analyses (TGA and DSC), rheological, mechanical, and microscopic evaluations. Results and Conclusion: The results indicated that r-ABS filaments exhibit properties comparable to those of virgin ABS. FTIR analysis revealed the presence of the main functional groups of ABS in the recycled samples. Thermal analysis showed similar behavior between the recycled and virgin materials, with a single thermal decomposition event. Rheological analysis demonstrated that r-ABS possesses viscoelastic properties suitable for the FDM process, and mechanical characterization showed that r-ABS exhibited tensile strength close to virgin ABS. Microscopic analysis revealed good layer adhesion and a low number of voids, factors that contribute to the quality of the printed objects. Research Implications: This study contributes to the valorization of polymeric waste, promoting the use of recycled materials in additive manufacturing processes, which can benefit both the environment and the 3D printing industry. Originality/Value: The research addresses a topic still underexplored in the literature, especially concerning the recycling of WEEE casings for the production of ABS filaments.

Debromination of Pyrolytic oil from waste printed circuit boards by catalytic thermo chemical reactions with Ca(OH)2 and ZSM-5

The surge in Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment (WEEE) volume presents a formidable disposal challenge. This study focused on catalytic pyrolysis of waste printed circuit boards (WPCBs) employing Ca(OH)2 alone and in conjunction with ZSM-5 as catalysts. Kinetic parameters for catalytic and non-catalytic pyrolysis were derived through thermogravimetric analysis (TGA). The Coats-Redfern method for non-catalytic pyrolysis showcased activation energies of 33.52, 405.81, and 67.96 kJ/mol in zones 1, 2, and 3, respectively with corresponding reaction orders of 0.9, 2.8, and 1.2. Introduction of Ca(OH)2 amplified activation energy and reaction order in zones 2 and 3. Subsequent incorporation of ZSM-5 with Ca(OH)2 resulted in reduced activation energy and reaction order in zone 2, while elevating them in zones 1 and 3. Validation through laboratory-scale fixed-bed reactor experiments confirmed TGA findings and unveiled that pyrolysis oil had enhanced phenolic yield because of ZSM-5 where Ca(OH)2 showcased its effectiveness in eliminating halogens.

A novel formula for calculating repulsive forces in horizontally aligned nonferrous cylindrical particles within an Eddy current separator

Eddy Current Separation (ECS) stands as a highly efficient recycling technology crucial for separating nonferrous particles from waste electrical and electronic equipment (WEEE). This process relies on repulsive forces induced by eddy currents as particles traverse the variable magnetic field of a rotating magnetic drum. Achieving optimal separation in this multifaceted process demands a careful selection of magnetic drum parameters. This study focuses on modeling the repulsive forces acting on diverse nonferrous particle shapes, with a particular emphasis on horizontally oriented cylindrical particles, and exploring their trajectories under various adjustable parameters. The effectiveness of the separator is intimately governed by these repellent magnetic forces. Our numerical model comprehensively accounts for the key magnetic and mechanical forces shaping particle movement. Through a dedicated Matlab program, simulations of trajectories are conducted, dissecting the influence of parameters such as separation angle, number of poles, electromagnetic drum velocity, and particle sizes. The findings, elucidated in detailed diagrams, offer a profound understanding of each parameter's impact, crucial for optimizing ECS processes.

Evaluation Methodology for Circular and Resilient Information Systems

Digital technologies nowadays provide essential support for companies, making them a priority for businesses and a prominent area of study for researchers. In response to the increasing emphasis on sustainability and resilience, new information systems are developing to meet evolving business needs, namely circular and resilient information systems (CRISs). These systems integrate with traditional ones to optimise key performance indicators (KPIs) related to circularity and resiliency. Despite extensive methodologies for evaluating traditional information systems, systems designed for circularity and resiliency need to be assessed in parallel and in depth. Existing evaluations focus on efficiency and user satisfaction but often neglect the unique demands of circularity and resiliency. This study introduces a novel evaluation methodology for CRISs. Through a case study of an innovative system and the established literature, we address real-life needs and challenges in manufacturing. In particular, the system serves the needs of three distinct case studies: Carbon Fibre-Reinforced Polymer (CFRP) waste utilisation in drone manufacturing, recovery of magnets from Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment (WEEE), and the repurposing of citrus processing waste into juice by-products. Our methodology is built on the 5W1H method to make our approach context-specific and aligned with each case’s unique requirements, making it also replicable for other industries. Our findings offer insights and a tool for practitioners and researchers to evaluate CRIS performance. The research highlights the importance of a two-fold evaluation approach for CRISs, evaluating both pilot-specific KPIs and the system’s technical performance. Policy implications suggest the need for regulatory frameworks and incentives to support the adoption, as well as evaluation, of CRISs and promote sustainable and resilient industrial practices.

Thermal and Catalytic Recycling of Plastics from Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment-Challenges and Perspectives.

The amount of end-of-life electrical and electronic devices has been widely increased, globally. This emphasizes how recycling waste electric and electronic equipment (WEEE) is essential in order to reduce the amount of WEEE that is disposed of directly in the environment. Plastics account for a big percentage in WEEE, almost 20%. As a result, the application of recycling methods on plastics gathered from WEEE is of great importance since, in this way, landfill disposal can be reduced. Nevertheless, despite the advantages, there are a lot of difficulties, such as the variety of different plastics present in the plastic mix and the existence of various additives in the plastic parts, for instance, brominated flame retardants that need special attention during their treatments, which restricts their wide application. Considering all these, this review aims to provide readers with all the current techniques and perspectives that are available for both the thermal and the catalytic recycling of plastics retrieved from WEEE. Apart from the up-to-date information on the recycling methods, in this review, emphasis is also given on the advantages each method offers and also on the difficulties and the limitations that may prevent them from being applied on a large scale. Current challenges are critically examined, including the use of mechanical or thermo-chemical recycling, the treatment of individual polymers or polymer blends and the separation of harmful additives before recycling or not. Finally, emerging technologies are briefly discussed.

Inventory of Electronic Waste (E-Waste) and Residues in Junkshops: A Step Towards Residual Waste Management

The improper management of Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment (WEEE) constitutes a critical global environmental challenge, with a significant proportion of e-waste ending up in landfills, posing substantial ecological and health risks. In the Philippines, particularly in areas like Marilao and Bulacan, many individuals rely on the recycling of e-waste for their livelihoods, primarily through junkshops and informal recycling networks. Despite providing economic benefits, these practices often result in substantial residual waste, exacerbating landfill overflow and environmental degradation. This study aims to establish a detailed e-waste inventory and propose practical strategies for improving residual waste management. This research used a mixed-method approach to collect data via surveys, interviews, and direct observations at selected junkshops in Marilao. The findings enabled a comprehensive categorization of e-waste based on economic value, highlighting "temperature exchange equipment" as the most economically valuable category while identifying "small IT and telecommunication equipment" as the least. Among the significant residual wastes identified were base/black plastics, styrofoam, and glass, which are commonly mishandled. The study proposes several management strategies, including partnerships with local governmental bodies and recycling companies to enhance recycling processes, improving dismantling techniques to reduce waste, and implementing rigorous waste segregation practices to prevent contamination and improve recycling rates. This expansion is critical for a more comprehensive understanding and monitoring of e-waste management practices, facilitating the development of more effective and sustainable waste management solutions. By adopting these strategies, junkshops and informal recyclers can optimize e-waste management, reducing environmental impact while maintaining economic viability.

Environmental perspective of the recycling system for waste electrical and electronic equipment (WEEE)

The production of electrical and electronic equipment (EEE) is one of the fastest growing global manufacturing activities. At the same time this also means that the amount of waste electrical and electronic equipment (WEEE) will continue to increase in the coming decades. The purpose of this paper is to raise awareness in the broad plane of the problem of electrical and electronic waste in our country. Specifically, this study tries to inform the public, experts and protective policy makers about the volume and dangerousness of waste, increasing the financial impact on local government and taxpayers. However, there are conventional methods for waste disposal, these methods have economic and environmental disadvantages. Recycling is a new management option. This paper offers an overview of electrical and e-waste recycling, including a description of how it is generated and classified, strategies and technologies for recovering materials. Completing European standards in this field, analyzing all stages of the recycling process: collection, classification, processing and benefit of new materials, is also part of the analysis in this paper.

Isoconversional Analysis of the Catalytic Pyrolysis of ABS, HIPS, PC and Their Blends with PP and PVC.

Thermochemical recycling of plastics in the presence of catalysts is often employed to facilitate the degradation of polymers. The choice of the catalyst is polymer-oriented, while its selection becomes more difficult in the case of polymeric blends. The present investigation studies the catalytic pyrolysis of polymers abundant in waste electric and electronic equipment (WEEE), including poly(acrylonitrile-butadiene-styrene) (ABS), high-impact polystyrene (HIPS) and poly(bisphenol-A carbonate) (PC), along with their blends with polypropylene (PP) and poly(vinyl chloride) (PVC). The aim is to study the kinetic mechanism and estimate the catalysts' effect on the activation energy of the degradation. The chosen catalysts were Fe2O3 for ABS, Al-MCM-41 for HIPS, Al2O3 for PC, CaO for Blend A (comprising ABS, HIPS, PC and PP) and silicalite for Blend B (comprising ABS, HIPS, PC, PP and PVC). Thermogravimetric experiments were performed in a N2 atmosphere at several heating rates. Information on the degradation mechanism (degradation steps, initial and final degradation temperature, etc.) was attained. It was found that for pure (co)polymers, the catalytic degradation occurred in one-step, whereas in the case of the blends, two steps were required. For the estimation of the activation energy of those degradations, isoconversional kinetic models (integral and differential) were employed. In all cases, the catalysts used were efficient in reducing the estimated Eα, compared to the values of Eα obtained from conventional pyrolysis.

A Green Slurry Electrolysis to Recover Valuable Metals from Waste Printed Circuit Board (WPCB) in Recyclable pH-Neutral Ethylene Glycol

The continuous growth of e-waste necessitates an efficient method to recover their metal contents to improve their recycling rate. The successful recovery of the metallic component from Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment (WEEE) can generate great economic benefits to incentivize the industrial recycling effort. In this study, we report the use of slurry electrolysis (SE) in pH-neutral ethylene glycol (EG) electrolyte to extract and recover the metallic component from waste printed circuit broad (WPCB) powder. The system operates at room temperature and atmospheric pressure, and the electrolyte can be recycled multiple times with no signs of chemical degradation. The EG electrolyte system can oxidize the metallic component without triggering anodic gas evolution, which allowed us to incorporate a reticulated vitreous carbon (RVC) foam anode to maximize the capture and oxidation of the metal content. The system demonstrated up to 99.1% Faraday efficiency for the cathodic metal deposition and could recover Cu from the WPCB powder in a selective manner of 59.7% in the presence of 12 other metals. The SE reaction system was also scalable and displayed no compromises on the Cu recovery selectivity. With the ability to leach and recover metallic content from WPCB in a mild and chemically benign condition, the SE system displayed much promise to be adapted for industrial-scale metal recovery from WPCB. Reference Liu, K., Lam, JCH. et al. "A green slurry electrolysis to recover valuable metals from waste printed circuit board (WPCB) in recyclable pH-neutral ethylene glycol." J. Hazard. Mater. 2022433: 128702.Liu, K., Lam, JCH. et al. "Teaching Electrometallurgical Recycling of Metals from Waste Printed Circuit Boards via Slurry Electrolysis Using Benign Chemicals." J. Chem. Educ. 2023 100(2): 782-790. Figure 1

An EOQ Model for Circularity Index with Waste Minimization and Reduced Emission in Electrical and Electronic Equipment

A circular economy uses limited natural resources and is efficient and environmentally productive. It aims to transform from a "take-make-waste" approach to a more restorative and regenerative one. A closed-loop system reduces waste, pollution, and carbon emissions by reusing, sharing, repairing, refurbishing, remanufacturing, and recycling. We developed a new model on reverse logistics economic order quantity with the circular economy. This paper proposes a profit-maximizing economic lot size system in which all products are at variable circularity levels. The product's degree of circularity directly influences customers' demand and gross profit per unit, and we study these effects using both linear and nonlinear forms of analysis as consumers become more socially responsible about their consumption practices. This paper aims to maximize profits from the waste of electrical and electronic equipment (WEEE) by reducing carbon emissions. Some examples are discussed to find the profit of a business with variations of parameters. The goal of this study is to help reverse the flow of products to re-manufacturers of electrical equipment, especially computer equipment manufacturers, to acquire the ideal circular index for the products they manufacture to maximize profit and preserve the environment simultaneously.

Environmental benefit of recycling plastics from waste electrical & electronic equipment

Plastic recycling from waste electrical and electronic equipment (WEEE) can effectively deal with both the resource crisis and environmental pollution. However, the life cycle environmental impacts of recycling plastics derived from WEEE are still unclear. Therefore, this study adopts life cycle assessment and machine learning methods to estimate the environmental impacts and mitigation potentials of WEEE plastics recycling. We find the environmental degradation of WEEE waste plastics recycling are mainly from electricity consumption and transportation during the disassembly and granulation stages. Significant variation in the reduction effect of WEEE plastics recycling technologies is observed, ranging from 13 % to 77 %. The WEEE generation is projected to exhibit an S-shaped trend from 103 tonnes in 1980 to 15.42 million tonnes (Mt) in 2050, contributing to 10.33 Mt of carbon reduction. Improving the efficiency of WEEE plastics recycling technologies and enhancing legal recycling of waste air conditioner can efficiently reduce environmental emissions.

Potential of metal recovery from printed circuit boards in Brazil.

In this study, the generation of domestic waste electrical and electronic equipment (WEEE) and waste printed circuit board (WPCB) were estimated, from 2015 to 2030. Based on the number of EEE put on the Brazilian market, the possession rate in the Brazilian households and obsolescence amounts of five EEE types were estimated using time series. The results show that, between 2015 and 2030, the quantity of WEEE generated per year will increase from 131.87 kt to 195.22 kt. In this period, WPCB generation will stay around 10% of WEEE generation. Additionally, this study shows that the urban mining potential of the materials recoverable from WPCB can be an important revenue source, with environmental benefits deriving from energy savings and a reduction in CO2 emissions. The results of this study provide a quantitative basis that may help decision makers develop strategic policies for WEEE management, considering material circularity.

Recycling of Nd−Fe−B sintered magnets into a single phase by solvothermal treatment and CaH2 reduction-diffusion

Recycling computer hard disk drives from Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment (WEEE) has been achieved according to a two-step approach that combines solvothermal treatment and CaH2 reduction-diffusion, resulting in the production of a single-phase material. The magnets underwent solvothermal treatment, followed by CaH2 reduction at varying temperatures (200°C, 250°C and 300°C). We examined the impact of CaH2 as a reducing agent on the final product, using X-ray diffraction, Mössbauer spectrometry and SQUID magnetometry. After the solvothermal treatment, the powder contains both Nd2Fe14BHx and Nd(OH)3 phases. At 200°C, Nd(OH)3 was reduced without degradation of the magnetic Nd2Fe14BHx phase, as confirmed by Mössbauer spectrometry. Furthermore, an analysis of the magnetic properties indicates an increase in magnetization after CaO removal, confirming its successful elimination.