Warm Weather Months Research Articles

Forecasting thermal stress for sports tourists at the 2026 FIFA World Cup.

This study explores thermal stress conditions (i.e. heat, humidity, sunlight exposure) sports tourists can expect when attending the 2026 FIFA World Cup. Sports tourism's growth is driven by international mega-events like FIFA World Cups and Olympic Games. With planning ongoing for the 2026 FIFA World Cup football (soccer) tournament, what remains unstudied are the heat conditions spectators can expect at the 16 host stadiums in the United States, Mexico, and Canada. The inquiry is important considering (1) the tournament is taking place in warm-weather months of June and July, (2) thermal stress contributes to heat-related illnesses like heat stroke, and (3) many destination-bound tourists will be at elevated risk to heat. Accordingly, we report historical and forecasted thermal stress levels documenting expected conditions at each host stadium. Notably, forecasts indicate worsening thermal stress compared to long-term means, providing support for the study's methodology. Practical implications and limitations are provided.

Case Report: Soldier With Latrodectism After Black Widow Spider Bite During a Field Training Exercise.

Latrodectism from black widow spider (BWS) bites is rare in the United States. Latrodectism is a severe systemic manifestation of the envenomation that includes severe abdominal pain mimicking acute surgical abdomen and, in rare cases, could lead to acute myocarditis and rhabdomyolysis. The BWS typically inhabits dark, low-lying areas such as woodpiles, tree stumps, outdoor storage, outdoor furniture, outdoor toilets, and rock piles and is most active during warm weather months. Military service members often participate in field training exercises during warm weather in wooded areas littered with woodpiles and tree stumps; therefore, they are at an increased risk for bites by arachnids. We report the case of a 26-year-old active duty male soldier evacuated from field training with latrodectism and possible envenomation-induced myocarditis after a suspected BWS bite.

Nocturnal Destabilization Associated with the Summertime Great Plains Low-Level Jet

AbstractThe Great Plains low-level jet (LLJ) has long been associated with summertime nocturnal convection over the central Great Plains of the United States. Destabilization effects of the LLJ are examined using composite fields assembled from the North American Mesoscale Forecast System for June and July 2008–12. Of critical importance are the large isobaric temperature gradients that become established throughout the lowest 3 km of the atmosphere in response to the seasonal heating of the sloping Great Plains. Such temperature gradients provide thermal wind forcing throughout the lower atmosphere, resulting in the establishment of a background horizontal pressure gradient force at the level of the LLJ. The attendant background geostrophic wind is an essential ingredient for the development of a pronounced summertime LLJ. Inertial turning of the ageostrophic wind associated with LLJ provides a westerly wind component directed normal to the terrain-induced orientation of the isotherms. Hence, significant nocturnal low-level warm-air advection occurs, which promotes differential temperature advection within a vertical column of atmosphere between the level just above the LLJ and 500 hPa. Such differential temperature advection destabilizes the nighttime troposphere above the radiatively cooled near-surface layer on a recurring basis during warm weather months over much of the Great Plains and adjacent states to the east. This destabilization process reduces the convective inhibition of air parcels near the level of the LLJ and may be of significance in the development of elevated nocturnal convection. The 5 July 2015 case from the Plains Elevated Convection at Night field program is used to demonstrate this destabilization process.

Why Wait for Warm Weather?: Adventure in the Wintertime

Adventure units that are included within an encompassing physical education curriculum are often structured during warm-weather months when conditions are “ideal” for outdoor class time. This article describes how to implement an adventure education curriculum in a cold-weather outdoor environment that may provide additional welcoming challenges for their students.

Diurnal Valley Winds in a Deep Alpine Valley: Observations

Diurnal valley winds frequently form over complex topography, particularly under fair weather conditions, and have a significant impact on the local weather and climate. Since diurnal valley winds result from complex and multi-scale interactions, their representation in numerical weather prediction models is challenging. Better understanding of these local winds based on observations is crucial to improve the accuracy of the forecasts. This study investigates the diurnal evolution of the three-dimensional mean wind structure in a deep Alpine valley, the Rhone valley at Sion, using data from a radar wind profiler and a surface weather station operated continuously from 1 September 2016 to 17 July 2017. In particular, the wind profiler data was analyzed for a subset of days on which fair weather conditions allowed for the full development of thermally driven winds. A pronounced diurnal cycle of the wind speed, as well as a reversal of the wind direction twice per day is documented for altitudes up to about 2 km above ground level (AGL) in the warm season and less than 1 km AGL in winter. The diurnal pattern undergoes significant changes during the course of the year. Particularly during the warm-weather months of May through to September, a low-level wind maximum occurs, where mean maximum up-valley velocities of 8–10 m s−1 are found between 15–16 UTC at altitudes around 200 m AGL. In addition, during nighttime, a down-valley jet with maximum wind speeds of 4–8 m s−1 around 1 km AGL is found. A case study of a three-day period in September 2016 illustrates the occurrence of an elevated layer of cross-valley flow around 1–1.5 km AGL.

Modeling and Optimizing a Chiller System Using a Machine Learning Algorithm

This study was conducted to develop an energy consumption model of a chiller in a heating, ventilation, and air conditioning system using a machine learning algorithm based on artificial neural networks. The proposed chiller energy consumption model was evaluated for accuracy in terms of input layers that include the number of input variables, amount (proportion) of training data, and number of neurons. A standardized reference building was also modeled to generate operational data for the chiller system during extended cooling periods (warm weather months). The prediction accuracy of the chiller’s energy consumption was improved by increasing the number of input variables and adjusting the proportion of training data. By contrast, the effect of the number of neurons on the prediction accuracy was insignificant. The developed chiller model was able to predict energy consumption with 99.07% accuracy based on eight input variables, 60% training data, and 12 neurons.

Monitoring and Modeling the Long-Term Rainfall-Runoff Response of the Jacob K. Javits Center Green Roof

Drainage from the 27,316-m2 Jacob K. Javits Convention Center (JJCC) green roof was investigated in the field to quantify the system’s long-term rainfall-runoff response. The JJCC hosts one of the largest extensive green roofs in the United States. Utilizing four years of rooftop monitoring data collected using a weather station, custom designed and built drainage systems, three Parshall flumes equipped with pressure transducers, and weighing lysimeters, this study quantified the 25.4-mm-deep green roof’s ability to decrease the volume and peak rate of runoff. With parameters derived from the site, the Environmental Protection Agency Stormwater Management Model (EPA-SWMM) predicted event total runoff volume and event peak runoff rates to within +10% to −20% and +25% to −15% of the observations, respectively. The analysis further indicated that approximately 55% of the cumulative precipitation that fell on the JJCC extensive green roof during the monitoring period (warm weather months, June 2014–November 2017) was captured and retained. The average percent retained on an event-basis was 77%, and average event runoff coefficient was 0.7, implying a substantial reduction in the volume and rate of runoff generated from the roof compared to the pre-green roof condition, when most, if not all, of the precipitated water would have immediately resulted in runoff. Our research suggests that, on average, 96% of rainfall events 6.35 mm or less were retained within the green roof, whereas 27% of the total event volume was retained for events greater than 12.7 mm in depth. A sensitivity analysis suggests if the substrate depth were increased, better stormwater capture performance would be achieved, but only up 127 mm, whereas increased precipitation coupled with warmer temperatures as a result of climate change could decrease the performance by up to 5%, regardless of substrate depth. An equivalency analysis suggested that even shallow green roofs can significantly reduce the required stormwater detention volume that New York City requires on new development. This particular green roof appears to be more than 18 times as cost-effective as a subsurface cistern would be for managing an equivalent volume of stormwater in Midtown Manhattan.

Seasonality of Coliform Bacteria Detection Rates in New Jersey Domestic Wells.

It is important that indicators of fecal pollution are reliable. Coliform bacteria are a commonly used indicator of fecal pollution. As other investigators have reported elsewhere, we observed a seasonal pattern of coliform bacteria detections in domestic wells in New Jersey. Examination of a statewide database of 10 years of water quality data from 93,447 samples, from 78,207 wells, generated during real estate transactions, revealed that coliform bacteria were detected in a higher proportion of wells during warm weather months. Further examination of the seasonal pattern of other data, including well water pH, precipitation, ground and surface water temperatures, surface water coliform bacteria concentrations, and vegetation, resulted in the hypothesis that these bacteria may be derived from nonfecal (or environmentally adapted) as well as fecal sources. We provide evidence that the coliform seasonality may be the result of seasonal changes in groundwater extraction volumes (and to a lesser extent precipitation), and temperature-driven changes in the concentration of surface or near-surface coliform sources. Nonfecal coliform sources may not indicate the presence of fecal wastes and hence the potential presence of pathogens, or do so in an inconsistent fashion. Additional research is needed to identify the sources of the coliforms detected in groundwater.

Clinical manifestations of non-O1 Vibrio cholerae infections.

BackgroundInfections caused by non-O1 Vibrio cholera are uncommon. The aim of our study was to investigate the clinical and microbiological characteristics of patients with non-O1 V. cholera infections.MethodsThe clinical charts of all patients with non-O1 V. cholera infections and who were treated in two hospitals in Taiwan were retrospectively reviewed.ResultsFrom July 2009 to June 2014, a total of 83 patients with non-O1 V. cholera infections were identified based on the databank of the bacteriology laboratories of two hospitals. The overall mean age was 53.3 years, and men comprised 53 (63.9%) of the patients. Liver cirrhosis and diabetes mellitus were the two most common underlying diseases, followed by malignancy. The most common type of infection was acute gastroenteritis (n = 45, 54.2%), followed by biliary tract infection (n = 12, 14.5%) and primary bacteremia (n = 11, 13.3%). Other types of infection, such as peritonitis (n = 5, 6.0%), skin and soft tissue infection (SSTI) (n = 5, 6.0%), urinary tract infection (n = 3, 3.6%) and pneumonia (2, 2.4%), were rare. July and June were the most common months of occurrence of V. cholera infections. The overall in-hospital mortality of 83 patients with V. cholera infections was 7.2%, but it was significantly higher for patients with primary bacteremia, hemorrhage bullae, acute kidney injury, acute respiratory failure, or admission to an ICU. Furthermore, multivariate analysis showed that in-hospital mortality was significantly associated with acute respiratory failure (odds ratio, 60.47; 95% CI, 4.79-763.90, P = 0.002).ConclusionsNon-O1 V. cholera infections can cause protean disease, especially in patients with risk factors and during warm-weather months. The overall mortality of 83 patients with non-O1 V. cholera infections was only 7.2%; however, this value varied among different types of infection.

Coccidia (Apicomplexa: Eimeriidae) Infecting Gerbils from Mongolia with Descriptions of Four New Species ofEimeria

From 2009 to 2012 collaborators of the Mongolian Vertebrate Parasite Project funded by the U.S. National Science Foundation mounted 4 major expeditions into south and southwestern Mongolia covering low- and high-altitude habitats consisting of desert, desert-steppe, and montane biomes. Both ecto- and endo-parasites were obtained from all of the approximately 4,000 mammals collected during this work. The present report contains a summary of the coccidian parasites of gerbils (Meriones Illiger 1811) collected during the warm-weather months in the Gobi and Altai regions of Mongolia. A total of 171 gerbils of 3 species from 22 separate localities were examined for coccidia. Coccidian oocysts were identified from 21 gerbils, but those found in one of those gerbils were probably pseudoparasites of the host from which they were recovered. From the remaining 20 gerbils, 7 morphotypes of Eimeria and 1 morphotype of Isospora Schneider 1881 were identified. Four of the 7 morphotypes of Eimeria were attributed to new species, which are described herein. In order to identify any apparent epidemiological trends, χ2 tests were performed to identify correlations between infection with species of Eimeria or Isospora and host species, sex, infection with helminths, and year and month of capture. The only significant (α = 0.10) correlation found using a χ2 test was that between host species and infection by Eimeria spp. (P = 0.07); oocysts of Eimeria spp.

A case-crossover analysis of the impact of PM2.5 on cardiovascular disease hospitalizations for selected CDC tracking states

BackgroundInformation is currently being collected by the CDC Environmental Public Health Tracking (EPHT) network on hospitalizations due to Acute Myocardial Infarction (AMI) and there is interest by CDC in exploring the relationship between fine particulate matter (PM2.5) and other cardiovascular (CVD) outcomes in the context of the EPHT program. The goal of this study was to assess the short term effects of daily PM2.5 air pollution levels on hospitalizations for CVD for seven states within the CDC EPHT network (Florida, Massachusetts, New Hampshire, New Jersey, New Mexico, New York, and Washington). MethodsHospitalization data was obtained for 2001–2008 admissions for circulatory disease (primary discharge diagnosis of ICD-9 codes 390-459) from data stewards in those states and included admission date, age, gender, and zip code of residence. We used CMAQ-derived predicted daily PM2.5 data as estimated by EPA at the centroid of each Census Bureau Zip Code Tabulation Area (ZCTA) and linked to zip code of patient residence. A time-stratified case-crossover study design with conditional logistic regression was used to evaluate the short-term association of PM2.5 on risk of non-elective hospitalizations for CVD. Specifically, we considered all circulatory disease, ischemic heart disease, acute myocardial infarction, heart failure, cardiac arrhythmia, cerebrovascular disease and peripheral vascular disease endpoints. ResultsData were obtained on over 7,500,000 hospitalizations for this time period. Mean annual PM2.5 exposure levels were lowest for New Mexico and Washington (6.5μg/m3 PM2.5 and 8.4μg/m3 PM2.5). New Jersey, New York and Massachusetts exhibited the highest annual averages for PM2.5, (12.8μg/m3, 11.1μg/m3 and 10.8μg/m3), respectively. The Northeast states (Massachusetts, New Jersey, New Hampshire and New York) exhibited significant effects of PM2.5 during the cooler months across most disease categories after adjustment for ozone and maximum apparent temperature.Ischemic heart disease risk per 10μg/m3 increase in PM2.5 varied from 1.02 to 1.05 for the cooler months. The largest lag effect was noted on lag days 0 and 1. New Mexico and Washington exhibited no cool or warm month significant effects. Although Florida showed no cooler month effects, significant increases were noted in odds ratios for the warm weather months for all outcomes except peripheral vascular disease. This study is one of the first large scale applications of linkage of hospitalization data by state with national US EPA statistically modeled air pollution data. The results demonstrate that state-wide, there are multiple cardiovascular outcomes in addition to AMI which may be impacted by particulate air pollution.

Epidemiology of foodborne disease outbreaks caused by Vibrio parahaemolyticus, China, 2003–2008

Vibrio parahaemolyticus is a ubiquitous marine bacterium that has become an important public-health concern worldwide. Consumption of food contaminated with V. parahaemolyticus causes acute gastroenteritis in humans. To gain understanding of epidemiological characteristics of V. parahaemolyticus gastroenteritis outbreak in China, we summarized data on 2003–2008 V. parahaemolyticus gastroenteritis outbreaks in 12 provinces reported to China National Foodborne Diseases Surveillance Network. A food item was implicated if V. parahaemolyticus was isolated from food or based on epidemiologic evidence. From 2003 to 2008, 322 gastroenteritis outbreaks due to V. parahaemolyticus were reported, resulting in 9041 illnesses and 3948 hospitalizations. Outbreak size ranged from 2 to 244 cases, with a median of 20 cases. Most of the outbreaks occurred during April and October. A single food commodity was implicated in 187 (58%) outbreaks, of which 58 (31%) involved meat and meat products, and 52 (28%) involved aquatic products. Outbreaks most frequently occurred in restaurants (39%), cafeterias (30%), and private residences (15%). Outbreaks most frequently attributed to cross contamination (50%). To prevent and control V. parahaemolyticus gastroenteritis outbreaks, food workers and consumers should receive training on avoiding cross contamination of ready-to-eat foods with uncooked seafoods, particularly in warm weather months.

Rickettsiae and Ehrlichiae Within a City Park: Is the Urban Dweller at Risk?

Tick-borne diseases, such as spotted fever rickettsioses and ehrlichioses, are potentially severe and life-threatening infections. The incidences of these infections increase during warm weather months as ticks become active. Clinicians often consider outdoor activities in rural areas to be a risk factor for exposure to ticks and the pathogens they carry, but are those who live, work, and play within an urban environment excluded from this risk? In this study, we collected ticks from two urban parks in Little Rock, AR, to assess the presence of rickettsiae and ehrlichiae within an urban setting. A total of 273 ticks were collected during July, 2011. Amblyomma americanum was the predominant tick species, with 255 (93%) of those collected. The remaining 18 (7%) were Dermacentor variabilis. Ticks were separated and pooled into groups for further testing. Forty-two of the 43 (98%) A. americanum pools demonstrated molecular evidence for the presence of rickettsiae. None of the D. variabilis contained rickettsiae. Restriction enzyme fragment length polymorphism analysis and DNA sequencing revealed Rickettsia amblyommii to be the species present. One A. americanum pool from park A demonstrated the presence of Ehrlichia chaffeensis, the pathogen responsible for human monocytotropic ehrlichiosis. These results indicate that tick-borne pathogens are not limited to rural or suburban areas.

Analysis of the Costs and Economic Feasibility of Requiring Postharvest Processing for Raw Oysters.

Because of concerns about Vibrio vulnificus, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration is considering requirements for postharvest processing (PHP) of oysters harvested from the Gulf of Mexico during warm-weather months and intended for raw consumption. As described in the paper, feasible PHP methods for warm-weather-harvested oysters include cool pasteurization, high hydrostatic pressure, and low-dose gamma-irradiation. We estimate that the costs of applying PHP are approximately 5 to 6 cents per half-shell oyster intended for raw consumption. However, most oyster processors have insufficient volumes to cost-effectively install PHP equipment. To assist these smaller operations, central PHP facilities operated by a 3rd party would be needed. A geographic information system analysis that minimized volume-weighted travel distances from each Gulf oyster operation identified 6 optimal PHP facility locations in the Gulf region. Even with the establishment of central PHP facilities, some oyster operations will become unprofitable and be at risk for closure.

Seasonal population dynamics of Zeuxapta seriolae (Monogenea: Heteraxinidae) parasitising Seriola dumerili (Carangidae) in the Western Mediterranean

We examined the seasonal and yearly population dynamics of the monogenean pathogen Zeuxapta seriolae on juvenile fish from wild populations of Seriola dumerili. The study is based on bimonthly monitoring between April, 2005 and April, 2007 off Majorca, and newly obtained monogenean population data for juvenile fish from three additional localities in the Western Mediterranean (off Alicante, Corsica and Sardinia). We documented the highest intensities and abundances of Z. seriolae, with mean abundance values similar to or higher than those reported in the single case of wild fish mortalities reported to date. There was a recurrent pattern of seasonal change in infection with Z. seriolae in the populations of S. dumerili off Majorca, with substantially higher parasite loads during the warm season (April to June). Mean parasite abundance was significantly correlated with seawater temperature and associated with higher proportions of juvenile worms in the parasite populations, thus suggesting increased transmission rates at higher temperatures. There was a significant negative association between abundance of Z. seriolae and fish length. Comparisons with the samples of younger and older fish off Majorca indicated that whereas infection parameters gradually increased in the first year of juvenile fish life, larger/older fish (>43cm; 1+) were much lightly infected than the smaller/younger (<30cm; 0+) juvenile fish examined in the same season. The observed increases in abundance during the warm weather months were invariably associated with sharp increases in monogenean aggregation levels and this was in contrast with the markedly low levels for both parameters during the cold season months. These data, coupled with the strong negative correlation between the levels of aggregation of Z. seriolae and mean fish total length, indicate that heavily infected individuals are being rapidly removed (i.e. within 2–3 months) from the host population thus reducing the heterogeneity of parasite distribution as fish grow. We discuss parasite-induced host mortality and other mechanisms that may account for observed recurrent patterns in monogenean abundance and spatial aggregation and review the data available on the spread of Z. seriolae infections in the Mediterranean.

Impact of Long Farm Working Hours on Child Safety Practices in Agricultural Settings

To characterize working hours of adult farm owner-operators and their spouses by season, and to examine associations between working hours and farm safety practices affecting children. We conducted a secondary analysis of cross-sectional survey data collected as part of an existing study of injury and its determinants. Owner-operators reported a median of 60 to 70 hours of farm work per week during warm weather months, with declines in hours over the winter. Spouses reported similar seasonal patterns, although their median reported hours were much lower. Longer farm working hours by owner-operators were marginally associated with increased exposure of teenagers to farm work hazards. Exposures of young children to worksite hazards rose in association with longer farm working hours by spouses. Exposures of children to farm worksite hazards and demands may be consequences of adult long working hours.

The human dimension of energy conservation and sustainability

PurposeThe purpose of this paper is to determine the behaviors, attitudes, and levels of understanding among faculty, staff, and students in efforts to design programs aimed at reducing energy use in University of Michigan (UM) buildings.Design/methodology/approachA multi‐method approach is used in five diverse pilot buildings including focus groups, behavioral observations, environmental measures, and web surveys. The analyses consider differences between buildings and between the three population groups.FindingsAmong the findings, UM staff are most concerned about conserving energy in UM buildings while students are the least concerned. A significant proportion of survey respondents are not aware of past university efforts to conserve energy; among those who are aware, many felt that university efforts are inadequate. The observations and self‐reports reveal an abundance of energy‐consuming equipment in offices, and lights and computers are often left on when work spaces and conference rooms are unoccupied. Furthermore, occupants tend to wear heavy clothing during warm weather months indicating excessively low building temperatures. Finally, most occupants are willing to accept higher building temperatures during warm weather months and lower temperatures during cold weather months.Originality/valueThere has been limited work in institutional/organizational settings that considers occupant behavior as a factor in designing programs to conserve energy. The research uses a multi‐method approach to understand what people do, think, and have vis‐à‐vis energy use and conservation. Additionally, the researchers – working with university officials – have designed programs aimed at changing the behaviors of building occupants. These programs have been implemented in the five pilot buildings; plans are currently underway to evaluate the effectiveness of the programs.

Adult proxy responses to a survey of children's dermal soil contact activities.

Contaminated site cleanup decisions may require estimation of dermal exposures to soil. Telephone surveys represent one means of obtaining relevant activity pattern data. The initial Soil Contact Survey (SCS-I), which primarily gathered information on the activities of adults, was conducted in 1996. Data describing adult behaviors have been previously reported. Results from a second Soil Contact Survey (SCS-II), performed in 1998-1999 and focused on children's activity patterns, are reported here. Telephone surveys were used to query a randomly selected sample of U.S. households. A randomly chosen child, under the age of 18 years, was targeted in each responding household having children. Play activities as well as bathing patterns were investigated to quantify total exposure time, defined as activity time plus delay until washing. Of 680 total survey respondents, 500 (73.5%) reported that their child played outdoors on bare dirt or mixed grass and dirt surfaces. Among these "players," the median reported play frequency was 7 days/week in warm weather and 3 days/week in cold weather. Median play duration was 3 h/day in warm weather and 1 h/day in cold weather. Hand washes were reported to occur a median of 4 times per day in both warm and cold weather months. Bath or shower median frequency was seven times per week in both warm and cold weather. Finally, based on clothing choice data gathered in SCS-I, a median of about 37% of total skin surface is estimated to be exposed during young children's warm weather outdoor play.

Ocular and Orbital Trauma from Water Balloon Slingshots: A Clinical, Epidemiologic, and Experimental Study

Purpose: The authors report the findings of 17 patients with ophthalmic injuries produced by launched water balloons;they determine water balloon kinetic energies in experimental and theoretical studies.Methods: Six case summaries are presented;one case report was retrieved from the literature;ten injuries were reported to the Consumer Product Safety Commission. Energies were determined by field trials and calculations.Results: Injuries included periorbital edema and ecchymoses, orbital contusions and hematomas, maxillary sinus hematomas, facial hypesthesia, eyelid lacerations, subconjunctival hemorrhages, corneal edema and abrasions, hyphemas, traumatic iritis, iris sphincter ruptures, iris atrophy, angle recession, iridodialysis, traumatic cataract, vitreous hemorrhages, retinal hemorrhages, macular hole formation, optic atrophy, and bony orbital wall fractures. Epidemiologic analysis revealed that children and young adults, more often males, were injured, most commonly in the warm weather months. In field trials, maximum water balloon velocities ranged from 38 to 41 m/sec (85–92 mph) with kinetic energies from 176 to 245 joules;by calculation, maximum velocities ranged from 42 to 54 m/sec (95–121 mph) with kinetic energies from 141 to 232 joules. In a field demonstration, a slingshot-launched water balloon exploded a watermelon.Conclusion: Energies are comparable to or greater than those experienced with a variety of common objects, including some rifle bullets that are known to cause serious ophthalmic injuries. These energies are far in excess of those required to perforate a cornea, rupture a globe, or fracture the bony orbit. This study demonstrates the serious and potentially vision- and life-threatening injuries inflicted by these “toys.”

Utilizing High Airflow Rates for Aerating Wheat

A study was conducted in Dickinson County, Kansas, to evaluate the impact of airflow rates greater than 0.02 m3/s/m3 (1.5 cfm/bu) for aerating wheat during warm weather months. The results showed that a 10 C difference between average ambient air temperature and initial wheat temperature justified a cooling cycle. High airflow rates cooled the wheat by an average of 6 C with about 9 hours of fan operation. There were no adverse effects on test weight or moisture content. Data from literature were used to show such a reduction in grain temperature could reduce insect population growth by 80 to 97%. Airflow rates greater than 0.02 m3/s/m3 (1.5 cfm/bu) would allow Kansas producers to utilize the limited hours in July and August when ambient air temperatures are below 20 C (68 F) or 10 C (18 F) below harvest temperatures.