Warm Temperate Zone Research Articles

Dispersion of Vascular Plant in An-do, Korea

The vascular plants observed in the area were composed of a total of 342 taxa; 104 families, 239 genus, 309 species, 30 varieties, 2 forms and 1 sub-species. The endangered species found in the area were Glehnia littoralis Fr. Schm. and Milletia japonica (Siebold & Zucc.) A.Gray. The five endemic plants were found growing in the area like Carpinus coreana Nakai., Celtis choseniana Nakai, Clematis trichotoma, Spiraea prunifolia for. simpliciflora and Weigela subsessilis L.H.Bailey. Specialized plants of Geumodo were a total of 45 species; 34 taxa in Grade I, 10 taxa in Grade III, and 1 taxon in Grade V. Glehnia littoralis Fr. Schm. and Milletia japonica (Siebold & Zucc.) A.Gray confirmed in this study formed a colony alongside the coast and mountain paths. Currently, the construction to build water supply and sewer systems destroyed part of the colony. Therefore, in the long-term perspective, the conservation plan such as comprehensive research and monitoring on the ecosystem shall be established to protect indeciduous plants in the warm temperate zone.

Applications of ground source heat pump systems in different temperature zones in China

SYNOPSIS An analysis of the application of ground source heat pump (GSHP) systems to different temperature zones in China is presented in this paper. According to the climate characteristics, China is divided into six different temperature zones: the tropical zone, the subtropical zone, the warm temperate zone, the mid temperate zone, the cold temperate zone, and Qinghai-Tibet Plateau vertical temperature zone. Six representative cities corresponding to the six temperature zones are chosen and their different climate and soil characteristics are studied. The results show that a GSHP system can be applied to the first four temperature zones above, but not the cold temperate zone and the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau vertical temperature zone. However, in different temperature zones, different GSHP systems should be designed and built.

Effects of vegetation cover on summer climate in China during 1982–2001

In this paper, we apply lagged correlation analysis to study the effects of vegetation cover on the summer climate in different zones of China, using NOAA/AVHRR normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI) data during the time period from 1982 to 2001 and climate data of 365 meteorological stations across China (precipitation from 1982 to 2001 and temperature from 1982 to 1998). The results show that there are positive correlations between spring NDVI and summer climate (temperature and precipitation) in most zones of China; these suggest that, when the vegetation cover increases, the summer precipitation will increase, and the lagged correlations show a significant difference between zones. The stronger correlations between NDVI in previous season and summer climate occur in three zones (Mid-temperate zone, Warm-temperate zone and Plateau climate zone), and this implies that vegetation changes have more sensitive feedback effects on climate in the three zones in China.

Phylogeographical patterns of a generalist acorn weevil: insight into the biogeographical history of broadleaved deciduous and evergreen forests

BackgroundClimatic changes during glacial periods have had a major influence on the recent evolutionary history of living organisms, even in temperate forests on islands, where the land was not covered with ice sheets. We investigated the phylogeographical patterns of the weevil Curculio sikkimensis (Curculionidae), a generalist seed predator of Fagaceae plants living in both deciduous oak and evergreen forests of Japan. Its genetic structure was compared to that of another host-specific seed predator, C. hilgendorfi, inhabiting only evergreen forests.ResultsWe examined 921 bp of mitochondrial DNA for 115 individuals collected from 33 populations of C. sikkimensis from 11 plant species of three genera, Quercus, Lithocarpus, and Castanopsis. An analysis of molecular variance revealed that a large proportion (almost 50%, P < 0.001) of the total genetic variance could be explained by differences between two geographical regions, the southwestern and northeastern parts of the main islands of Japan. In contrast, no significant genetic differentiation of the weevil was observed among vegetation types of their utilized host plant species. The phylogeographical patterns of the generalist and the host-specific seed predator exhibited a congruent genetic boundary in the Chugoku-Shikoku region.ConclusionOur results suggest that geology and historical environment have contributed to shaping the present genetic structure of C. sikkimensis. The geographical patterns of genetic differentiation in the Chugoku-Shikoku region observed in the two types of Fagaceae-associated Curculio in this study have also been observed in several plant species growing in warm and cool temperate zones of Japan. The occurrence of this common pattern suggests that deciduous oak and evergreen forests of Japan survived together, or adjacent to each other, in small refugia during glacial ages, in the southwestern and northeastern parts of the main islands, although these two types of forests are presently distributed in cool and warm temperate zones of Japan, respectively.

Energy consumption and evapotranspiration at several boreal and temperate forests in the Far East

We measured sensible and latent heat fluxes ( H and λE) in five forests located in boreal, cool-temperate, and warm-temperate zones of the Far East concurrently over several years to clarify their energy-consumption characteristics and the variation in and factors controlling evapotranspiration. The consumption of energy for evapotranspiration was larger at the southern sites than at the northern sites, and evapotranspiration in summer (July–August) was larger (average 2.9 mm day −1) for temperate forests than for boreal forests (average 1.7 mm day −1). Differences in energy-consumption characteristics between the forest types (e.g., deciduous vs. coniferous) were not as distinct as those by location. This inter-locational difference resulted from differing evapotranspiration restrictions caused by land-surface characteristics, rather than differing atmospheric evaporation demand.

CLASSIFICATION OF PLANT FUNCTIONAL TYPES BASED ON DOMINANT TREE SPECIES IN THE FOREST ECOSYSTEM AT FUNIU MOUNTAIN NATIONAL RESERVE, EAST CHINA

Aims Dominant tree species control the structure and function of forest ecosystems. De-limiting plant functional types (PFTs) based on dominant tree species, therefore, can assist in under-standing the functional, structural framework and species distributions of an ecosystem. Straddling the subtropical and warm-temperate zones of the Funiu Mountain National Natural Reserve, East China, is representative of north-south climatic transition zones. The tree layer is composed mainly of a few dominant species whose abundances vary along altitudinal gradients. Methods Using community ecology techniques, we sampled the north and south slopes of Funiu Mountain. We calculated species importance values for 37 tree species and identified dominant species. χ2 tests, together with association coefficient and percentage co-occurrence, were used to measure inter-specific associations of the dominant tree species. PFTs were defined according to interspecific associa-tions and altitudinal distributions of the dominant species. Important findings Four dominant tree species (Quercus variabilis, Q. glandulifera, Q. acutidentata, Pinus armandi) formed the basis of four PFTs: Ⅰ. Q. variabilis, Q. aliena, Aldizzia kalkora, Castaneaseguinii (under 1 000 m); Ⅱ. Q. glandulifera, Platycarya strobilacea, Pistacia chinensis (1 100-1 400 m); Ⅲ. Q. acutidentata, Carpinus cordata, Toxicodendron vernicifluum (1 400-1 800 m) and Ⅳ. Pinus armandi, P. tabulaeformis, Abelia biflora, Betula platyphylla, B. albo-sinensis (above 1 800 m). These PFTs differ in many morphological traits such as leaf size and phellem (cork) thickness, Further eco-physiological studies are required to better understand these differences.

Glacial bottleneck and postglacial recolonization of a seed parasitic weevil, Curculio hilgendorfi, inferred from mitochondrial DNA variation

Climatic changes during glacial periods have had a major influence on the recent evolutionary history of living organisms, even in the warm temperate zone. We investigated phylogeographical patterns of a weevil Curculio hilgendorfi (Curculionidae), a host-specific seed predator of Castanopsis (Fagaceae) growing in the broadleaved evergreen forests in Japan. We examined 2709 bp of mitochondrial DNA for 204 individuals collected from 62 populations of the weevil. Four major haplogroups were detected, in southwestern and northeastern parts of the main islands and in central and southern parts of the Ryukyu Islands. The demographic population expansion was detected for the two groups in the main islands but not for the Ryukyu groups. The beginning time of the expansion was dated to 39,000-59,000 years ago, which is consistent with the end of the last glacial period. Our data also demonstrated that the southwestern population of the main islands has experienced a more severe bottleneck and more rapid population growth after glacial ages than the northeastern population. At least three refugial areas in the main islands were likely to have existed during the last glacial periods, one of which had not previously been recognized by analyses of intraspecific chloroplast DNA variation of several plant species growing in the broadleaved evergreen forests. Our results represent the first phylogeographical and population demographic analysis of an insect species associated with the broadleaved evergreen forests in Japan, and reveal more detailed postglacial history of the forests.

Dynamics of leaf area index and canopy openness of three forest types in a warm temperate zone

Deciduous broad-leaved forests (DBF), Larix principis-rupprechtii (LF) and Pinus tabulaeformis plantations (PF) are three typical forest communities in the warm temperate zone of the Dongling Mountains. In this study, we used an indirect method, hemispheric photography, to measure and analyze the dynamics of leaf area index (LAI) and canopy openness of the three forest communities. The results show that the LAI values of DBF and LF increased gradually with plant growth and development. The highest LAI value appeared in August, while canopy openness changed inversely with LAI. The lowest value appeared in November. DBF maintained a higher LAI in August and had a more open canopy in November compared with LF. For PF, we observed little changes in the LAI and canopy openness which was attributed to the leaf retention of this evergreen species. However, a similar relation between LAI and canopy openness was found for the three forest communities: canopy openness varied inversely with LAI. The relation is exponential and significant. Therefore, canopy openness is a good indicator of LAI in forests. This result can be used to test the validity of the LAI based on remote sensing and to provide a reference for the study of the canopy heterogeneity and its effect. This also benefits modeling for fluxes of carbon, water and energy from the level of the stand to landscape.

Prospects for control of bacterial wilt of potato (Ralstonia solanacearum) through soil incorporation of aerial part of confrey (Symphytum officinale uplandicum)

Bacterial wilt caused by Ralstonia solanacearum is a widespread soilborne disease in the tropical, subtropical and warm-temperate zones of the world [1].

Chickpea Improvement: Role of Wild Species and Genetic Markers

Chickpea is an important grain legume of the semi arid tropics and warm temperate zones, and forms one of the major components of human diet. However, a narrow genetic base of cultivated chickpea (Cicer arietinum L.) has hindered the progress in realizing high yield gains in breeding programs. Furthermore, various abiotic and biotic stresses are the major bottlenecks for increasing chickpea productivity. Systematic collection and evaluation of wild species for useful traits has revealed presence of a diverse gene pool for tolerance to the biotic and abiotic stresses. Relationships among the species of genus Cicer are presented based on crossability, karyotype and molecular markers. The reproductive barriers encountered during interspecific hybridization are also examined. Recent information on genetic linkage maps, comparison of isozymes The functional markers generated from genic sequence (e.g. ESTs) have definite advantage over the markers generated from anonymous random regions of the genome, because they are completely linked to desired trait alleles (Anderson and Lubberstedt, 2003; Varshney et al., 2005; Buhariwala et al., 2005). At ICRISAT, Buhariwala et al. (2005) have developed an EST library from two very closely related chickpea genotypes (Cicer arietinum). A total of 106 EST-based markers were designed from 477 sequences with functional annotations and tested on C. arietinum. Forty-four EST markers were polymorphic when screened across nine Cicer species (including the cultivated species) and were used to study the species relationship. Most of the species clustered as reported in the previous studies, and hence it further supported the classification of primary (C. arietinum, C. echinospermum and C. reticulatum), secondary (C. pinnatifidum, C bijugum and C. judaicum), and tertiary (C. yamashitae, C. chrossanicum and C. cuneatum) gene-pools. A large proportion of EST alleles (45%) were only present in one or two of the accessions tested whilst the others were represented in up to twelve of the accessions tested.

Estimating the Impact of Thermal Change on Broad-leaved Tree Leaf Phenology in the Warm Temperate Zone

Estimating the Impact of Thermal Change on Broad-leaved Tree Leaf Phenology in the Warm Temperate Zone

Occurrences of warm-adapted mammals in north China over the Quaternary Period and their paleo-environmental significance

The north and south China faunas are subdivided along the line of Huaihe River-Qinling Mountains-Hengduan Mountains-Himalayas, to the north is the Palearctic Region, and to the south is the Oriental Region, which is the result of long-time evolution. Hundreds of Quaternary fossil localities have been known up to now, more than 60 of which contain warm-adapted elements which can be referred to 20 species. Among the warm-adapted elements appearing in north China, Hystrix, Macaca, Palaeoloxodon, Dicerorhinus and Bubalus are the most frequently recorded genera. There are three kinds of causal explanation about the frequent appearance of warm-adapted elements in north China: The first hypothesis attributed them to the dispersal events of warm-adapted mammals from the south during warm stages or warm seasons; the second scenario thinks that these warm-adapted mammals in north China were once derived there in situ and subseqeuntly emigrated to the south with the cooling down of the global climate; the last hypothesis believes that these warm-adapted elements were not real warm-climate animals at that time. This study shows that almost none of the warm-adapted mammals in north China was recovered in the loess, and also almost all of the fossil localities which bear warm-adapted mammals fall within the warm temperate zone of nowadays. In fossil assemblage, those warm-adapted elements rarely co-exist with the cold-adapted mammals. All these evidences mentioned above indicate that the warm-adapted mammals in north China represent warm climate, but not hot one. Because all these warm-adapted mammals are widely distributed oriental elements, some of them even still exist north of the Huaihe River today. Up to now, no typical oriental elements have ever been recovered in north China, such as pangolin, primitive primates (e.g. loris and tarsier), big apes (e.g. Gigantopithecus, Pongo and Hylobates), etc. The Late Pleistocene lasted a relatively shorter time, but the appearance of warm-adapted mammals during that span were the most frequent and most widespread. It means that the climate of the Late Pleistocene experienced the most frequent fluctation over the whole period of Quaternary.

Climate changes in the Early to Middle Miocene of the Central Paratethys and the origin of its echinoderm fauna

This study uses echinoderm diversity to assess climatic changes in the Early to Middle Miocene of the Central Paratethys. It is based mainly on a taxonomically standardised dataset of Central Paratethys echinoids, supplemented by data on asteroid, ophiuroid, crinoid, and holothuroid distributions. Potential constraints of the raw diversity data are explored and possible biases are identified. These include a heterogeneous rock record (in terms of outcrop area and facies of the preserved sedimentary rocks), stage duration and sampling bias. The latter was overcome by utilising rarefaction analysis to investigate species richness. These analyses show that the patterns observed in the raw data are robust and not severely biased by sampling intensity. The potential influence of a heterogeneous rock record was assessed by comparing surface outcrop areas of the various stages to standing diversity. A second bias involving a heterogeneous rock record, the non-preservation of distinct habitats, was overcome by carrying out within-habitat comparison of standing diversity and faunal composition.The observed patterns were therefore established as ‘true’ signals rather than artefacts produced by various biases. Consequently, echinoderm diversity is used to evaluate climate changes during the Neogene of the Central Paratethys, as well as to interpret minimum winter and summer sea surface temperatures in the Badenian (Middle Miocene). Climatic conditions during the deposition of the Badenian Leitha limestone were addressed along with the presence of N–S gradients within the Central Paratethys. The presently available data suggest warm temperate conditions for the Late Eggenburgian (Early Burdigalian) followed by a brief temperature drop in the Ottnangian (early Late Burdigalian). Temperatures increased again in the Karpatian and a climatic optimum was reached in the Early Badenian. A slight cooling during the Middle Badenian was reflected by the southwards shift of predominantly temperate genera from the northern fringes of the Central Paratethys in the Early Badenian to the central parts in the Late Badenian.The faunal gradients observed in the Early Badenian of the Central Paratethys suggest that the boundary between the warm temperate and tropical zone lay somewhere within the Paratethys at that time. Considering the more southerly position of the study area (about 34° palaeolatitude) in the early Middle Miocene, this implies that the tropical climate zone was much wider during the early Middle Miocene than today.Biogeographic investigations of the Central Paratethyan echinoid faunas show that the overwhelming part of the Central Paratethys echinoid species are immigrants from the Mediterranean area. Immigration occurred in three distinct waves during the Late Eggenburgian, the Karpatian, and Early Badenian. While no common echinoid species were identified between the Boreal region and the Central Paratethys, two species of asteroids from the northern-most fringes of the Central Paratethys also occur in the North Sea Basin. Endemism is low in most of the stages, except for the Ottnangian, when geodynamic processes and global cooling resulted in a large-scale re-organisation of Central Paratethyan faunas.

Fish communities in temporarily open/closed estuaries from the warm- and cool-temperate regions of South Africa: A review

The majority of estuaries along the coastline of southern Africa are termed temporarily open/closed estuaries (TOCEs) and are closed off from the sea for varying periods by a sandbar which forms at the mouth. It is therefore important to understand the processes occurring within TOCEs and their importance to fishes in order to make sound management recommendations. Estuaries along the coast of South Africa and their associated fish assemblages are biogeographically distinct and occur in either a subtropical, warm-temperate or cool-temperate zone. There are 125 TOCEs found within the cool-temperate and warm-temperate zones. Most fish species found in TOCEs are the juveniles of marine taxa that breed at sea. Permanently open estuaries generally have a higher diversity of species than TOCEs, but TOCEs still provide important nursery areas for many marine species and numerically often have a higher proportion of estuarine resident species. Important taxa in terms of abundance and biomass in warm-temperate TOCEs include the sparids Rhabdosargus holubi and Lithognathus lithognathus, several mugilid species, estuarine residents (particularly Gilchristella aestuaria and Atherina breviceps) and the freshwater cichlid Oreochromis mossambicus. The diversity of fishes in cool-temperate TOCEs is low when compared with warm-temperate systems and Liza richardsonii tends to dominate catches by number and mass in most systems. Several species recorded in TOCEs show clear longitudinal distribution trends. For example Atherina breviceps is generally more abundant in the lower reaches of estuaries. Mouth state, particularly the frequency, timing and duration of mouth opening plays a key role in determining species richness, composition, diversity and abundance in TOCEs. Mouth state is directly linked to freshwater input. Reduced river inflow leads to prolonged mouth closure and shorter open phases, which inhibits immigration and emigration of marine fish species between estuaries and the sea. Understanding of the effects of various processes occurring within these systems, particularly variation in freshwater input, on the biota of these important systems facilitates the development of informed management recommendations.

The Ecological Characteristics of the Endangered Species Paeonia suffruticosa var. spontanea in China

Abstract Paeonia suffruticosa var. spontanea, distributed in a very small area in Shanxi and Shaanxi provinces of China, is an endemic, endangered, and nationally protected species. To assist the protection of this species, the biological and ecological characteristics of its populations were investigated and analyzed. There are eight communities (TWINSPAN result) in which this species is found. It prefers forest communities dominated by Quercus liaotungensis in the warm-temperate climate zone. Its spatial distribution pattern is clumped in all communities. Its populations are expanding in all study areas. Biomass and productivity are closely related to plant age, density, and environmental conditions. The level of sexual reproduction is low, and the main method of reproduction of this species is vegetative propagation. Canopy gaps may be important for the establishment, growth, and reproduction of this species. Based on these characteristics, some suggestions for the conservation management of Paeonia su...

Investigating the environmental adaptability of promising subtropical and cold-tolerant eucalypt species in the warm temperate climate zone of KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa

During 2001, a series of four site-species interaction trials was established by the ICFR (Institute for Commercial Forestry Research) in the warm temperate climate zone of KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa (mean annual temperature (MAT) range 16–19°C), to investigate the relative growth performances of a range of promising new eucalypt species. Trees were assessed for frost sensitivity at 15 months, and height and basal area at 48 months. Eucalyptus longirostrata, E. pilularis, Corymbia citriodora subsp. citriodora, C. henryi and C. maculata, species that performed well in forerunner ICFR coastal Zululand site-species trials (MAT range 21.7–21.9°C), generally showed poor adaptation to the cooler, inland conditions. Bacterial blight (Pantoea ananatis) impeded early growth in members of Eucalyptus subseries Punctatosae (E. punctata, E. biturbinata and E. longirostrata) and E. urophylla at the two coolest sites, Rooipoort (15.7°C MAT) and Rockvale (16.3°C MAT). The cold-tolerant eucalypts E. badjensis and E. smithii averaged good growth across sites, but showed susceptibility to Phytophthora root-rot disease where MAT exceeded 17.0°C. The planting of either species for commercial purpose under similar conditions in the warm temperate zone would likely carry with it a substantial risk. Eucalyptus benthamii and E. dorrigoensis, species that performed well in earlier ICFR high-altitude site-species trials (MAT range 14.2–15.5°C), showed excellent adaptation to the KwaZulu-Natal warm temperate conditions. These two species, as well as E. oreades (the third best-performing new species), appear good candidate replacement species for the commercial controls in the region, namely E. grandis, E. dunnii, E. smithii and E. macarthurii.

DYNAMICS OF LEAF AREA INDEX AND CANOPY OPENNESS FOR THREE FOREST COMMUNITIES IN THE WARM TEMPERATE ZONE OF CHINA

Aims Leaf area index (LAI) and canopy openness are two important biophysical parameters of canopy structure related to water and carbon fluxes and light interception. They are not only key variables in ecological and climate models, but also important indicators of forest ecosystem productivity. Accurate estimates of LAI and canopy openness are required in studies of ecophysiology, atmosphere-ecosystem interactions, and global change. Many researches have been done in Dongling Mountain in the warm temperate zone; however, fewer studies have focused on LAI and canopy openness. The objective of this study is to measure and analyze the dynamics of LAI and canopy openness of three typical forest communities in this area. Results will be useful in testing and validating LAI estimations based on remote sensing, providing reference for study of canopy heterogeneity and its effects and modeling carbon, water and energy fluxes from stand to landscape levels. Methods We used hemispherical photographs taken from the ground through a fisheye lens for indirectly assessing LAI and canopy openness. Photos were taken in May, August, September and November 2005 in deciduous broad-leaved forest (DBF), Larix principis-rupprechtii forest (LF) and Pinus tabulaeformis forest (PF). Important findings The LAI of DBF and LF increased gradually with plant growth and development to August. The lowest value of canopy openness appeared in November. DBF maintained a higher LAI in August and was more open in November compared to LF. For PF, we observed few changes of LAI and canopy openness, which we attribute to leaf retention of this evergreen species. In all forests, canopy openness varied inversely with LAI. The correlation was exponential and significant; therefore, canopy openness is a good indicator of LAI in these forests.

Surface Pollen Data Addition for the Warm-temperate Zone of Japan: An Improved Paleotemperature Reconstruction for Late Quaternary Interglacials

The current status and some problems of the Japanese surface pollen dataset are reviewed in an attempt to improve paleotemperature reconstructions for late Quaternary interglacials (MIS1, 5e and 11), which may provide analogues for present global warming. Application of modern analogue technique (MAT) to a 250m-long pollen profile from Lake Biwa provided quantified paleotemperature variations during the past 450kyr, with the limitation that the reconstructed curve saturates above 16°C annual mean temperature, resulting in low accuracy for reconstructed interglacial thermal levels. This saturation results from a lack of surface pollen in the same thermal range. In order to resolve this problem, a surface pollen data addition for the warm-temperate zone of Japan along the southwestern Pacific coast is being carried out.

Case study for sustainable management of Jeju experimental forest

Since the Rio World Summit of 1992, a new paradigm of sustainable forest management has developed and concerns have been mainly focused on how forest sustainability will be objectively achieved, assessed and measured. Attention has focused on developing criteria and indicators for sustainable forest management and getting forests certified. This study aimed to transform Jeju Experimental Forest, located in the warm temperate zone of Halla mountain on Jeju Island in Korea, into an exemplary model forest by implementing sustainable forest management at the ground level and pursuing forest management certification. As a pre‐requisite for forest certification, an extensive, 900‐man‐day field survey was conducted in 2004 over the 2,741 ha of Jeju Experimental Forest to determine the ecological, social, economic and managerial aspects. Based on the survey results, the database systems for flora and fauna and site conditions of Jeju Experimental Forest were established and a 10‐year forest management plan was developed with greater consideration for intangible forest values such as biodiversity, landscapes and water resources using forest function classification mapping. The forest function classification program was found to be a useful tool for supporting the decision‐making process for forest management planning. The preparation for forest certification became a long process to meet the pre‐requisites for implementation of sustainable forest management at the ground level.

Water resources utilization and eco-environmental safety in Northwest China

Northwest China includes Xinjiang Ugyur Autonomous Region, Qinghai Province, Gansu Province, Ningxia Hui Autonomous Region and Shaanxi Province, covering 308×104km2. It is located in the warm-temperate zone and the climate is arid or semi-arid. Precipitation is very scarce but evaporation is extremely high. The climate is dry, the water resources are deficient, the eco-environment is fragile, and the distribution of water resources is uneven. In this region, precipitation is the only input, and evaporation is the only output in the inland rivers, and precipitation, surface water and groundwater change with each other for many times, which benefits the storage and utilization of water resources. The average precipitation in this region is 232 mm, the total precipitation amount is 7003×108 m3/a, the surface water resources are 1891×108 m3/a, the total natural groundwater resources are 1150×108 m3/a, the total available water resources are 438×108 m3/a, and the total water resources are 1996×108 m3/a and per capita water resources are 2278 m3/a. The water resources of the whole area are 5.94×104 m3/(a.km2), being only one-fifth of the mean value in China. Now, the available water resources are 876×108 m3/a, among which groundwater is proximate 130×108 m3/a.