War-torn Countries Research Articles

The Legacy of Lithuanian Architect Stasys Kudokas in the United States of America: Sacred Architecture Based on Hope and Expectations

Abstract Many Lithuanian intellectuals fled from the occupied Lithuania during the Second World War and after it, including the most famous architects who created the architectural language of interwar Kaunas Modernism. After escaping from the war-torn country to the United States of America, they resumed their professional pursuits while living in exile. Stasys Kudokas – one of the most prominent and productive architects in the interwar Lithuania – also pursued his carreer while living in exile. Yet his architectural heritage in the United States of America is still an under-researched topic. The Lithuanian diaspora press remains one of the most comprehensive sources exploring Kudokas’ professional path in the United States of America. By using descriptive and comparative methods, this study aims to examine the most important projects by Kudokas for the Lithuanian diaspora and the related expectations of Lithuanian communities, reflected in the diaspora press. This study will reveal that the reflection of Lithuanianness in the architecture designed for the Lithuanian community was the most important criterion for evaluating Kudokas’ legacy in the exile press.

Changes in Greek Attitudes and Policies Towards Refugee Reception Between 2020 and 2024

The study examines changes in policies and attitudes related to refugee reception and survival migration in Greece between 2020 and 2024. We analysed the changes in migration policy in Greece during the 2020-2021 pandemic, the situation in refugee camps and the government’s response measures. Putting the information together, we can see that Greece has been handling refugees and migrants in accordance with international and EU standards. Greece is constantly improving conditions in refugee camps and improving life security. By understanding the situation of Greece’s reception of refugees from war-torn countries in the Middle East from 2023 to 2024, we can also understand that Greece has linked its policy on refugee immigration with its national conditions, striving for mutual benefit, and providing assistance to displaced refugees as much as possible. The study sorted out and analysed the refugee migration policies and government measures in Greece from 2019 to 2024, and more directly compared the changes in Greek policies and laws under different challenges. At the same time, we also analyse the impact of these changes from a sociological perspective.

Synchronous (In)significance: Recording Ukraine’s Cultural Heritage in Real-Time

ABSTRACT Synchronous (In)significance argues for the recognition of a mode of heritage conservation within war-torn Ukraine that is already underway. The paper examines the digital initiative Polycam: Backup Ukraine which allows for everyday users to record, upload and share three-dimensional scans of places, sites and objects that they deem significant within their immediate environment. This evolving contemporary archive is positioned by its founders as a tool for citizen empowerment through the shared availability of the technology and storage of items for heritage capture. The resulting collection provides an unconventional account of the sites, spaces and objects at risk in Ukraine, creating a constellation of high, local, formal and idiosyncratic personal entries. Through this portal, a broad and unsanctioned account of Ukrainian heritage is revealed. This paper draws on the work of Tracy Ireland, Steve Brown and John Schofield which examines the dichotomous relationship of significance and insignificance in the practice of value creation and negotiation of heritage identity. Through this lens it examines how notions of sharing; shared technology, shared ownership and shared access might allow for the creation of a contemporary heritage archive, that interacts with memory, place and things, but does so in ways that “are often not possible in the context of official heritage regimes because of rigid aesthetic paradigms, urban or class conflict, identity politics, or dominant national narratives.” 1 The archive, which draws together digital records of well-regarded heritage sites with unexpected spaces and objects of the personal and the everyday, becomes a means of assessing notions of significance and (in)significance in real-time. This in turn, provides a mechanism for re-evaluating what aspects of the war-torn country are considered worthy of recording and sharing.

A Lifelong Commitment: The Story of Dr. Kisu Song and His Impact on Korean Healthcare.

Dr. Kisu Song, an allopathic medical doctor specializing in general surgery, significantly impacted South Korean medicine and healthcare through his lifelong dedication to serving rural communities. Born on December 25, 1939, during the Japanese colonial period, Dr. Song witnessed the tumultuous transformation of Korea from a colonized nation to a divided one. His early life was marked by the Japanese colonial period and the Korean War and its aftermath, which influenced his decision to pursue medicine over law, a choice guided by the pressing needs of his community and his father's legacy. This biography explores Dr. Song's journey from a young student in a war-torn country to a pioneering rural physician in South Korea. His contributions, particularly in underserved areas, exemplify his profound commitment to healthcare and community service.

Understanding the influence of social media on COVID-19 vaccine acceptance in a war-torn Syria: A cross-sectional study.

Social media has become a source of disseminating information to the public during the COVID-19 outbreak which has been a great advantage for healthcare centers. However, foreign anti-vaccination campaigns on social media increased the disbelief in vaccine safety. To our knowledge, the effects of social media on COVID-19 vaccine acceptance are not well-studied in low-income countries. The primary objective of this survey is to investigate Syrians' dependence on social media platforms to get information about vaccines, and to what extent it affects their vaccination decision. A web-based cross-sectional study was conducted in Syria from May 26th to July 26th, 2022 using an online questionnaire as Google Form posted on various social media platforms. The questionnaire consisted of 53 questions related to each of the socio-demographic characteristics, beliefs, and knowledge about COVID-19 vaccination, willingness to get vaccinated, and social media frequency use and its effects. Univariate and multivariate logistic regression was performed to identify factors associated with vaccination behavior. A total of 780 questionnaires were completed; around 42.2% of study participants did not get the vaccine, and 24% would take it only under compulsory rules. Also, only 3.08% of the participants answered correctly on the knowledge-evaluation questions. Results of the univariate analysis showed that being female, living in an urban residential area, and having good vaccine knowledge were positive predictors of vaccine receiving. The unvaccinated group had a higher likelihood of being college students, not trusting in the vaccine, knowing relatively less about the vaccine, and not having previously been exposed to the virus. No significant correlation between vaccination status and using social media was shown in our investigation. However, our results show the importance of social media information in health-related decisions in war-torn countries and emphasize further investigations to confirm causality and determine the best health policy choice.

Asymmetric Impact of Russia–Ukraine War on Global Stock Markets

Russia’s invasion of Ukraine on February 24, 2022, emerged as Europe’s most significant military conflict post second world war, with global economic and geopolitical consequences. Using a broad (95-country) sample, the study examines the impact of the Russia–Ukraine war on global stock markets surrounding the war announcement. It applied the event study method and used short and long event windows to examine the war’s immediate and intermediate impacts. Global stock markets delivered negative 1.90% abnormal returns on the day of the war announcement, and Russia saw the biggest fall. However, after the initial adverse reaction, stock markets reacted asymmetrically. Stock markets of the countries in geographic proximity and high trade intensity with Russia and Ukraine, and net importers of energy and food grains negatively reacted more than the rest. The regional results show that Asia Pacific and Europe reported negative returns across event windows. In contrast, the Americas, Africa, and the Middle East did not react negatively, even in the shortest event window. Adverse war reactions moderated over time. Equity investors and portfolio managers who aim to protect their investments should buy stocks in countries that are net exporters of commodities made in war-torn countries and switch to stock markets geographically far from the war zone.

Pre-Settlement and Post-Settlement Stressors and Mental Illness Among Migrants from War-Torn Countries in the Middle East: A Scoping Review

The rising influx of Middle Eastern immigrants from war-torn countries into Canada, the United States, Europe, and Australia underscores the urgent need to understand the stressors they face during pre-settlement and post-settlement phases and their consequent impact on mental health. This scoping review addresses this gap by exploring 16 existing studies on Middle Eastern immigrants' experiences in these regions published since 1995. The studies were identified through database searches and selected based on specific inclusion and exclusion criteria focused on Middle Eastern immigrants from war-torn countries resettling in North America, Australia, and Europe. The review reveals that immigrants and refugees encounter significant challenges during resettlement, including acculturative stress, loss of status, and existential struggles. These stressors contribute to higher prevalence rates of psychological disorders compared to the general population. Examining the 16 studies predominantly from North America, Australia, and Europe, our review underscores the complex interplay between pre-settlement and post-settlement stressors and mental health outcomes among Middle Eastern immigrants. However, the limited scope of current research highlights the pressing need for further investigation across different continents and regions.

Comparing Methods to Genetically Engineer Bacteriophage and Increase Host Range.

Antibacterial resistance is an emerging problem in military medicine. Disruptions to the health care systems in war-torn countries that result from ongoing conflict can potentially exacerbate this problem and increase the risk to U.S. forces in the deployed environment. Therefore, novel therapies are needed to mitigate the impact of these potentially devastating infections on military operations. Bacteriophages are viruses that infect and kill bacteria. They can be delivered as therapeutic agents and offer a promising alternative to traditional antibiotic chemotherapy. There are several potential benefits to their use, including high specificity and comparative ease of use in the field setting. However, the process of engineering phages for military medical applications can be a laborious and time-consuming endeavor. This review examines available techniques and compares their efficacy. This review evaluates the scientific literature on the development and application of four methods of bacteriophage genome engineering and their consideration in the context of military applications. Preffered Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guidelines were followed for a systematic review of available literature that met criteria for analysis and inclusion. The research completed for this review article originated from the United States Military Academy's library "Scout" search engine, which compiles results from 254 available databases (including PubMed, Google Scholar, and SciFinder). Particular attention was focused on identifying useful mechanistic insight into the nature of the engineering technique, the ease of use, and the applicability of the technique to countering the problem of antimicrobial resistance in the military setting. A total of 52 studies were identified that met inclusion criteria following PRISMA guidelines. The bioengineering techniques analyzed included homologous recombination (12 articles), in vivo recombineering (9 articles), bacteriophage recombineering of electroporated DNA (7 articles), and the CRISPR-Cas system (10 articles). Rates of success and fidelity varied across each platform, and comparative benefits and drawbacks are considered. Each of the phage engineering techniques addressed herein varies in amount of effort and overall success rate. CRISPR-Cas-facilitated modification of phage genomes presents a highly efficient method that does not require a lengthy purification and screening process. It therefore appears to be the method best suited for military medical applications.

The Paradox of Diasporic Peacebuilding Amidst Violence: Providing Reparations to Colombians Abroad

ABSTRACT: This article uses the case of Colombian migrants in the United States (U.S.) who are registered with the Colombian Unit for Victims to illustrate the tension that emerges when a home country commits to reparations for nationals in exile when violence in their home country has not ceased. Bridging studies on transitional justice, diasporas, and displacement, we show the disconnect between the Colombian state's original goal to assist with return as the primary form of reparation and displaced Colombians' goals for stability, particularly legal status, abroad. Through interviews with Colombian officials and U.S.-based migrants, our findings show the unique dynamics of transnational reparations and the specific issue facing migrants from war-torn countries when their country of origin engages in transitional justice interventions.

Vietnam tourism at the crossroads of socialism and market economy

ObjetivoVietnam ha pasado de ser un país devastado por la guerra a convertirse en un popular destino turístico. Aunque la investigación sobre el turismo en Vietnam ha crecido en número, ha faltado en gran medida un macroanálisis de la gobernanza y las políticas turísticas nacionales. Nuestra investigación ha enriquecido la literatura tanto de la economía política como del turismo tendiendo un puente entre ambas disciplinas al presentar las pautas de la gobernanza del turismo en la economía de transición de Vietnam.Diseño/metodología/enfoqueEste documento de síntesis ofrece un análisis sistemático del turismo de Vietnam que abarca la intensificación de la intervención gubernamental y los drásticos cambios del mercado en las últimas décadas. Los autores ofrecen un análisis cronológico del desarrollo del turismo junto con los principales giros políticos y económicos del país. Además, el análisis del contenido de los documentos políticos y el análisis del mercado turístico ilustran mejor las repercusiones de los sistemas político-económicos en la gobernanza y las políticas turísticas.ResultadosLas políticas turísticas y el análisis del mercado revelan un compromiso entre la centralización y la descentralización del sistema de gobernanza y un compromiso entre los objetivos económicos y sociales del desarrollo. Al equilibrar estos opuestos, la fuerza interna del mercado nacional y la resistencia de las comunidades y las empresas se convierten en activos clave para el crecimiento en unas circunstancias en las que la economía de mercado socialista sigue informando el desarrollo actual y futuro de la industria. Concluimos que la adaptación del turismo vietnamita a una economía socialista orientada al mercado se percibe mejor como un logro de la evolución social que como una característica del capitalismo.Limitaciones/implicaciones de la investigaciónDentro del limitado abanico de cuestiones que podrían abordarse en un solo artículo, los autores no pueden establecer un estudio comparativo con China, en lo que respecta a la economía de transición. Nuestro estudio ofrece un punto de partida para futuras investigaciones empíricas y comparativas sobre la conexión entre turismo y economía política en Asia.Implicaciones prácticasLas conclusiones del estudio sirven de referencia útil para quienes se embarcan en el estudio de la gobernanza y la formulación de políticas turísticas en los países en desarrollo.Implicaciones socialesLos resultados de la investigación son valiosos para los investigadores del sudeste asiático en particular y para los analistas de la política turística del mundo en desarrollo en general.Originalidad/valorLa presente investigación contribuye a un área poco investigada de la economía política, a saber, la doctrina marxista y su diálogo con el turismo. La transferencia de conocimientos es un aspecto destacado de esta investigación, que se ha derivado de un análisis crítico de la gobernanza del turismo en la agenda económica política nacional.

FELSŐOKTATÁSBAN TANULÓ, ELSŐ GENERÁCIÓS KISEBBSÉGI HALLGATÓK PÁLYAMOTIVÁCIÓI

The literature on the social mobility of first-generation students confirms that these students often start higher education at a disadvantage. The lack of cultural and economic capital, along with the educational background of their parents, nfluences their career choices and potential dropouts. In this study, we explore the factors influencing career motivation by examining issues related to the education of first-year national minority student teachers (N=97). Our aim is to analyze minority teacher candidates’ satisfaction with their skills, training, and future plans using a questionnaire method. The results of the pilot research show that the majority of teacher trainees are first-generation students living in minority communities in Ukraine, currently a war-torn country. According to the results of the pilot research, firstgeneration tudents make up more than half of the first-year teacher trainees. One of their most prominent motivations for choosing an institution is the ease of access to education, and they choose teacher training mainly to broaden their knowledge. This study examines the career motivations of student teachers from ethnic minority backgrounds. Professional socialization is a lifelong, dynamic process from the moment an individual makes a career choice, influenced by a number of factors. After graduation, the individual incorporates professional expectations into their self-image, leading to the formation of a professional identity. During training, students have the opportunity to acquire skills and knowledge that meet the expectations of the profession, which can lead to a greater sense of commitment to the profession. The target group of this thesis is young members of a Hungarian minority community enrolled in Hungarian-language higher education, specifically in teacher education. Therefore, we consider it important to delineate the characteristics of minority students. Keywords: teacher candidates, first-generation students, career motivation, national minorities

How epidemics affect marginalized communities in war-torn countries: Ebola, securitization, and public opinion about the security forces in Liberia

Epidemics that overwhelm health and national institutions tend to disproportionately affect individuals from marginalized communities. The securitization of epidemics further exacerbates feelings of alienation and victimization by security forces among those in such communities. Focusing on this population, our study explores how experiences with securitization during the 2014 Ebola Virus epidemic in Liberia affected perceptions of the security forces. We leverage two, unique surveys conducted before and after the Ebola Virus Disease epidemic in two of Monrovia’s informal communities with histories of internally displaced persons and ex-combatants in Monrovia, Liberia–West Point and Peace Island. Our analysis allows us to assess differences in public opinion before and after the Ebola Virus Disease. We find that perceptions of police discrimination and disrespect increased in both communities and that demand for police services declined in both communities. With respect to the Armed Forces, direct contact with soldiers enhanced feelings of safety, but only among those who did not witness them engaging in abuse. Our findings suggest that securitization of epidemics could exacerbate trust in the state, thereby weakening its legitimacy.

Electoral Violence in Africa: An Analysis of Factors, Dimensions, Effects and Mitigating Factors

Elections are key elements of democratic processes. This article aims at providing reasons for election-related violence in Africa, their dimensions, effects, and mitigating factors. Elections are supposed to provide for a transparent and peaceful change of government, the distribution of power, and the promotion of democracy, but most elections in Africa are characterized by violence at various stages of the process. In war-torn countries and even in some stable African countries, incumbents are often manipulating or believed to be tampering with the electoral processes. The opposition parties also have incentives to further their strength through the use of violence. Such violence is potentially damaging democratic processes and undermining progress towards democratization. Electoral violence has varied causes, as highlighted in this article. Beyond direct effects such as hindering people from casting their vote and preventing candidates from participating in the electoral process, electoral violence can have long-term effects. Thus, managing election-related violence would build a strong, democratic, and peaceful society based on the rule of law, accountability, and transparency. Various strategies are used by different actors to achieve this. This article uses a qualitative research design. Information on the research is gathered purely from the review of scholarly articles and reports on the topic. The information presented is based on a synthesis of findings from these sources. From the synthesis of information from other reviews, we have in this article gathered and presented the main causes, effects, dimensions, and some mitigating factors of electoral violence in Africa.

Individual and social determinants of COVID-19 vaccine hesitancy and uptake in Northwest Syria

IntroductionThe COVID-19 outbreak devastated the fragmented health system in Syria, a war-torn country, and exaggerated the demands for humanitarian assistance. COVID-19 vaccination was rolled out in Northwest Syria, an area out of government control, in May 2021. However, vaccine acceptance rates are still minimal, which is reflected in the meager percentage of vaccinated people. The study aims to investigate the effectiveness of the humanitarian actors’ plans to address the COVID-19 vaccine hesitancy and conclude practical strategies for boosting vaccine uptake in Northwest Syria.Methods and materialsTwo questionnaires were developed to collect data from humanitarian organizations involved in the COVID-19 vaccination campaign and people from northwest Syria. Data analysis was performed using SPSS 22 data analysis program.ResultsAccording to the findings, 55.5% of people refused the COVID-19 vaccine. The results showed a knowledge gap and lack of evidence regarding humanitarian actors’ strategies to address the vaccine’s low uptake. Besides, it was found that doctors and medical workers were reliable sources of information about the vaccine. However, they were not systematically engaged in community mobilization and risk communication to promote people’s perspectives on the vaccine.ConclusionRisk communication and community engagement programs were not significantly associated with increasing the COVID-19 acceptance rate. Humanitarian actors must reconsider their strategies to address vaccine hesitancy in Northwest Syria. These strategies should engage medical professionals through dialogue sessions on the realities of the pandemic and vaccine development mechanism based on a compelling and evidence-based approach.

The Teaching and Learning of German as a Foreign Language in Greece – A Critical Investigation and Assessment

It is commonplace that the knowledge and use of foreign languages contribute positively to various and diverse fields in all countries of the world as well as to many social, cultural, labour, commercial, economic, political discussions and interactions of any civil society. Their role has been decisive in the past, still is today and it is more than evident that foreign languages will continue to play a decisive role in the future, especially on the personal, collective, state and cross-border levels, due to the ever-increasing mobility of people, whether voluntarily or involuntarily, from one continent to another, from one country on the same continent to another, from one poor, war-torn, oppressive and fascist country to a peaceful, democratic one, from one democratic country to another democratic one, etc. In particular, it plays a key role in: a. the acceptance of others with different origins, culture, religion, language, etc.; b. the mutual understanding, communication and the establishment of social relations between citizens of different cultures; c. the intellectual cultivation, cultural exchange, personal, professional rehabilitation and development of people; d. the conception and understanding of citizens that education and culture are the main pillars of the economic development of a country and of each individual; e. the cultivation and promotion of interdisciplinarity and the general progress of science and research; f. the friendship between States; g. the diplomatic (inter)negotiations, commercial transactions, various agreements between States. The present paper has been written for all these reasons and a few more discussed further on. It studies in a critical-interpretative way various aspects of the teaching and learning of German as a foreign language in Greece, a language spoken by several million people all over the world.

The EU’s Interests in Afghanistan in Post-2021 Scenario: From Preferences to Operational Engagements

The European Union (EU) reshapes its position on Afghanistan in the post-US withdrawal scenario, witnessing Taliban re-entrance to the power corridors. By stopping all preferences immediately after the Taliban takeover in August 2021, the EU decided to continue only an operational engagement with the new Afghan administration which was necessary for logistical, operational, and humanitarian purposes. This research paper aims to investigate the EU’s responses towards Afghanistan, particularly in terms of its strategic engagement with Kabul, which intends to limit humanitarian assistance and other necessary activities in the war-torn country. A situation analysis of the empirical process was employed as a research technique to investigate the EU’s new stance over Afghanistan following the Taliban’s reemergence in the country. The study finds that human rights violations, ineffective rules of law, lack of social justice, and security issues led to the lack of interest of the international community including the EU in enhancing trade and economic cooperation with the country. The paper argues that to reopen doors to the international community including the EU, the Taliban regime needs to fulfil its international commitments concerning human rights and security issues.

Cerebellar and Olfactory Bulb Perturbations Induced by Vanadium Neurotoxicity in the African Giant Rat (Cricetomys gambianus, Waterhouse).

The African giant rat, AGR (Cricetomys gambianus) is a unique rodent known for its keen sense of smell which has enabled its use in the diagnosis of tuberculosis and demining activities in war torn countries. This keen sense of smell and the ability to navigate tight spaces are skills modulated by the olfactory bulb and cerebellum. While the brain is generally susceptible to environmental pollutants such as heavy metals, vanadium has predilection for these two brain regions. This work was thus designed to investigate the probable neurotoxic effect of vanadium on the neuronal cytoarchitecture of the cerebellum and olfactory bulb in this rodent. To achieve this, twelve adults male AGRs were divided into two groups (vanadium and control groups) and were given intraperitoneal injections of 3mg/kg body weight sodium metavanadate and normal saline respectively for 14 days. After which they were sacrificed, and brains harvested for histological investigations using Nissl and Golgi staining techniques. Results from our experiment revealed Purkinje cell degeneration and pyknosis as revealed by a lower intact-pyknotic cell (I-P) ratio, higher pyknotic Purkinje cell density and poor dendritic arborizations in the molecular layer of the cerebellum in the vanadium treated group. In the olfactory bulb, neuronal loss in the glomerular layer was observed as shrunken glomeruli. These neuronal changes have been linked to deficits in motor function and disruption of odor transduction in the olfactory bulb. This work has further demonstrated the neurotoxic effects of vanadium on the cerebellum and olfactory bulb of the AGR and the likely threat it may pose to the translational potentials of this rodent. We therefore propose the use of this rodent as a suitable model for better understanding vanadium induced olfactory and cerebellar dysfunctions.

The Effect of Institutional Quality on Economic Growth: Evidence from Tripartite Approaches in the Context of War-Torn Countries

This paper is undertaken to investigate the role of institutional quality in proportion to the economic growth of war-torn countries during the last 20 years. Within this framework, the paper employed three different models to investigate the link that exists between good governance indicators and economic growth. According to the results, the long-run PMG model indicated that political stability and regulatory quality increase war-torn countries’ economic development. Contrarily, it has been demonstrated that the situation of law and corruption in these countries reduces economic growth. Neither the long-term nor short-term estimations from the MG and DFE models showed any noteworthy results. Next, the FMOLS and DOLS revealed that political stability, voice and accountability have a favorable effect on the economic development of these nations. On the other hand, these nations’ regulatory standards had a very detrimental impact on economic growth. Lastly, the fixed-effects model showed that a 1% improvement in these nations’ political stability will result in a 4.5% increase in GDP. This research will aid managers, academics, and policymakers in determining the course of actions needed in their areas of specialization or nations of interest to ensure economic growth and put in place an effective institutional framework through enforced supervision.

Support for children and families, including those arriving in the face of the war from Ukraine, offered in specialist day care facilities in Bialystok

Abstract Day care centres provide families with assistance in the care and upbringing of their children. Various forms of classes, from pedagogy of play to specialist therapeutic help, planned in the annual calendar of the institutions constitute a great support for families. Classes, free time activities, trips are free of charge, which is important in the case of families struggling with life and financial difficulties. Specialist day-care centres are a bridge between educational institutions and the family house. Such places constituted a mainstay for children coming to Białystok from a war-torn country, from Ukraine. This article is a summary of methodological activities that took place in specialized day care facilities with the participation and great commitment of students of the Faculty of Education of the University of Bialystok. The article presents good practices that can also be promoted in other institutions in the country.

The Civil War Female Refugee and Assimilation: An Acculturative Study of Layla AlAmmar’s Silence Is a Sense

Female refugees go through numerous stages and transformations during the asylum-seeking process, all of which leave their imprint on their individuality over time. This forced journey, the fleeing of a war-torn country, the search for shelter and safety in the host country, as well as a plethora of other factors, all have a bearing on the refugee's assimilation or lack thereof. This article aims to demonstrate the journey of assimilation that the protagonist in Layla AlAmmar's novel Silence is a Sense (2021) underwent. It takes John Berry's models of acculturation as its approach in order to investigate whether or not the refugee character Rana assimilated into the host society. Therefore, it critically scrutinizes the text to determine how Rana represents millions of female refugees, what it means to be a refugee in a host country, the extent to which a female refugee can integrate into the other country's culture, and whether the process of fully acculturating is underway.