Cave Walls Research Articles

Population records reveal expanded habitat preference for the endemic, predaceous Jamaican fungus gnat Neoditomyia farri (Diptera, Keroplatidae).

The predaceous fly Neoditomyia farri Coher is currently regarded as having an unknown population distribution in Jamaica. The larvae are known for their production of sticky "fishing lines" that are covered in adhesive droplets for prey capture and hang down from cave walls and ceilings. Published research beyond early observational records of the species is limited to one site-Dromilly Cave in the parish of Trelawny. The Jamaican Caves Organisation has observed larvae of the species at 26 caves visited over the last 2 decades and compiled a database with details of approximate numbers, internal and external environmental conditions, and accurate positions. Based on these records, we present evidence that the species is not cave obligate and describe factors that may suggest potential additional sites where the species can be found. Taken together, our observations paint a picture of a species which is ubiquitous and not under discernible threat, making it an excellent candidate for further research on its unique life history and behavior, which remain poorly understood.

Laughing like a caveman: excess and experience inside Georges Bataille’s Lascaux

ABSTRACT Towards the end of his life, Bataille became increasingly fascinated by prehistoric culture. His analysis of the Lascaux cave frames it as the symbolic site of our birth, envisioning in its art the final step to anthropogenesis: we, as a species, became human once we began smearing pigment on cave walls. Bataille’s account of this dual birth of art and humanity is neither an ode to our rational mind nor to our capacity for aesthetic contemplation. Rather, the murals adorning the cave would be the result of primordial ecstatic experiences. For Bataille, art ties in with excess: an activity devoid of use-value rising above necessity or instinct. Lascaux becomes the scene of a primordial crime against utility. Bataille’s cave stands as a counterargument to the enlightenment’s fixation on progress and productivity. The decades since, have seen our obsession with productivity grow even more pervasive. This paper explores the constellation of excessive behaviours which Bataille presents as key to the birth of art and, through an autoethnographic study, asks whether, and how, this ‘spectrum of excess’ is still relevant to artists today.

Biofilms from the Kapova Cave Walls as a Source of Hydrolase Producers

The studies of bacterial communities from extreme econiches are presently aimed mainly at analyzing the biodiversity of microorganisms using molecular biology methods. Cultivated bacteria from karst caves represent a unique group of microorganisms, the biochemical potential of which has been poorly studied. In the present work, bacteria from biofilms on the walls of the Kapova Cave (Shulgan-Tash Nature Reserve, Bashkortostan) were isolated and characterized in order to assess the ability of identified isolates to produce extracellular hydrolytic enzymes. Most of the isolates (89%) were members of the phylum Proteobacteria, with the remaining ones belonging to the phyla Actinobacteria, Firmicutes, and Bacteroidetes, which accounted for 5, 4, and 2% of the isolates, respectively. Strains with high levels of secreted protease, RNase, and amylase activity were identified as Stenotrophomonas rhizophila, Lysinibacillus fusiformis, and Pseudomonas stutzeri, respectively.

CO<sub>2</sub> hypogene speleogenesis in an endogenic travertine system, Mesa del Oro, New Mexico, USA

The Mesa del Oro travertine, deposited by upwelling CO2-rich spring waters, is a large and thick mantle of calcite overlying soft Triassic Chinle Formation mudstones in western central New Mexico, USA. The travertine contains a system of small caves known as the Pronoun Cave Complex. Whut Cave is the largest known cave in the complex. While the travertine hydrologic system is no longer active, there is ample evidence that Whut Cave was formed by hypogene speleogenesis. The Whut Cave entrance is a small roughly circular shaft that descends ~four meters and intersects a linear fissure-controlled passage. Mn-oxide was once mined below the entrance, leaving a five-meter-deep pit that represents the path of upwelling waters that were likely charged with CO2 and supersaturated with CaCO3 once reaching the surface. The roomiest part of the cave is immediately adjacent to the entrance, defining where most of the upwelling of groundwater and gases took place. Gypsum and other sulfates were only noted microscopically. A sample of travertine at the surface near the entrance yielded a uranium-series age beyond the limit of the method and a δ234U age of 735 ± 109 ka BP (before present). A piece of breccia vein in the mine dump associated with the Mn-oxide ore, and a rill of a drape-like crust on the cave wall, both interpreted to be products of hypogene speleogenesis and representing the oldest speleogenetic material, yielded δ234U ages of 848 ± 110 and 723 ± 109 ka BP. Altogether, materials interpreted to be speleogenetic yielded ages of ~900 – 300 ka BP. Although the cave is dry and hydrologically inactive today, cave development by CO2 hypogene speleogenesis was coeval with endogenic travertine deposition and nearby volcanism. Our interpretation suggests that all these events are linked.

Isolation and Identification of Carbonoclastic Fungi Causing Damage to Prehistoric Paintings in the Maros-Pangkep Karst Area

The carbonoclastic fungi known as a fungi that can produce calcium carbonate crystals (CaCO3) through the urease enzyme produced to hydrolysis of urea contained in the substrate or growth medium. The presence of carbonoclastic fungi is frequently observed in the karst areas cave wall painting, which are a type of ancient artifact. The destruction to the ancient cave artwork is brought on by the fungus. The purpose of this study was to obtain and determine the types of carbonoclastic fungi that cause damage to cave wall paintings in the Maros-Pangkep karst area. Isolation and selection of carbonoclastic fungi were carried out using Christensen Urea Agar medium. The CaCO3 precipitate potential test was carried out by calculating the mass CaCO3 precipitates formed and analysis of ammonia levels and cell biomass produced during the growth period. Fungi identification was performed using the 18S rRNA gene molecular markers. Twenty four fungi isolates obtained from swab samples in Parewe and Bulu Sipong caves, 7 positive isolated belonged to carbonoclastic fungi. The results of CaCO3 precipitates, namely isolate Ps3 producing precipitates of 80,30 mg with ammonia content value of 701,7064 ppm and cell biomass of 333,80 mg. The identification results showed that Ps3 isolate belongs to Aspergillus sp. strain BW1.

A MODELING OF RF PROPAGATION FOR LOW FREQUENCY IN NATURAL CAVES WITH 3D MODEL SIMULATION

The study of the RF propagation model within natural caves remains challenging. In the past, the propagation model in the tunnel was compared using waveguide theory because of the electrical conductivity of tunnel walls. However, waveguide models have limitations because a cut-off frequency from the tunnel dimension does not allow frequencies lower than the cut-off frequency to propagate. Although the frequency wave lower than the cut-off frequency cannot theoretically propagate, in practice, it can propagate through the cave. Therefore, this paper presents the modelling of RF propagation at low frequencies in natural caves using empirical methods by measuring the waves propagated within cave passages at the Chiang Dao Cave (limestone) and the Patihan Cave (sandstone). The measurement will focus on analyzing and comparing factors, propagation mechanisms, and behavior, which cover the frequencies at 300, 1000, 1650, 2325, and 3000 kHz, to develop the low-frequency attenuation model within the cave proposed in this paper. The 3D cave models obtained from a LiDAR scanner were used to calculate the physical factors of the cave walls, and then the path losses were calculated using our proposed model and compared to the experimental results. In addition, the path losses calculated using 1) CST simulation software and 2) the waveguide model were also compared with the results from the proposed model. The results obtained from the proposed model provide attenuation values similar to those of the experimental results. Finally, the concept of the low-frequency attenuation model can be used for the prediction and analysis of the propagation performance of low-frequency waves in caves, tunnels, or underground mines and lead to the development of cave communication technology and electromagnetic knowledge in the future.

Gypsum Cave Biofilm Communities are Strongly Influenced by Bat- And Arthropod-Related Fungi

The Gypsum Karst of Sorbas, Almeria, southeast Spain, includes a few caves whose entrances are open and allow the entry and roosting of numerous bats. Caves are characterized by their diversity of gypsum speleothems, such as stalactites, coralloids, gypsum crusts, etc. Colored biofilms can be observed on the walls of most caves, among which the Covadura and C3 caves were studied. The objective was to determine the influence that bat mycobiomes may have on the fungal communities of biofilms. The results indicate that the fungi retrieved from white and yellow biofilms in Covadura Cave (Ascomycota, Mortierellomycota, Basidiomycota) showed a wide diversity, depending on their location, and were highly influenced by the bat population, the guano and the arthropods that thrive in the guano, while C3 Cave was more strongly influenced by soil- and arthropod-related fungi (Ascomycota, Mortierellomycota), due to the absence of roosting bats.

Use and effectiveness of musical social story therapy in children with developmental disorders (down syndrome, autism spectrum disorder, fragile x syndrome, fetal alcohol spectrum disorder, cerebral palsy and adhd)

When human nature is examined, we find evidence that humans have created themselves through art since prehistoric times. Man has always used art as a form of self-expression. The pictures drawn on cave walls in the lightless periods of the world are the biggest proof that people always use art as a means of self-expression. Experimental studies in the field of neuroart and neuroaesthetics in recent years clearly show how the human brain reaches a developmental line with artistic stimuli. At this point, it is important to support children in neurodevelopmental sense and to bring them together with artistic stimuli. Activation of the orbitofrontal cortex with the stimulations of art creates tremendous results in terms of increasing synaptic connectivity in the child's brain. One of the most effective methods that can be used on the subject is Musical Social Stories Therapy in this sense. Studies show the important outputs of the method in children with developmental disorders (down syndrome, autism spectrum disorder, fragile x syndrome, fetal alcohol spectrum disorder, cerebral palsy and ADHD). In this sense, the method in question is especially suitable for children to increase motivation, to gain experience in creative expression and emotional reactions, to express emotions, thoughts and experiences comfortably, to develop self-esteem, to calm down and rest, to increase self-worth, to develop listening skills, to develop auditory perception, attention span. It is effective in the development of language use, development in language, motor, cognitive, self-care, social development, effective and permanent learning processes. Our related research aims to make positive contributions to the dissemination of the related method by addressing the history and usage areas of musical social stories therapy.

Ecological impact of mechanical cleaning method to curb black stain alterations on Paleolithic cave walls

Anthropization of Paleolithic karstic caves can cause an imbalance of cave microbiota and may trigger formation of wall alterations including black stains. In Lascaux Cave, a previous attempt to mechanically remove black stains was followed by reformation of the stain in months, suggesting that microbial recolonization had taken place. On this basis, we hypothesized that mechanical cleaning (a routine cleaning method for conservation of heritage sites) leaves a residual microbial community that can also serve as pioneer community, i.e. a community of early microbial residents that triggers subsequent microbial successions involved in the reformation of black stains. We monitored post-cleaning microbial recolonization over 19 months in the Apse of Lascaux Cave (France), after using two methods of mechanical cleaning (scalpel alone, or scalpel + sponge). Illumina MiSeq metabarcoding evidenced various taxa i.e. the bacteria Pseudomonas, Pedomicrobium and black-melanized fungi Ochroconis (=Scolecobasidium) during early recolonization of cleaned surfaces, and at later stages the establishment of several other taxa including the bacteria Luteimonas, Chitinophaga and the black fungus Exophiala. Surfaces at 19 months after cleaning were visually and microbiologically different from stained surfaces immediately after cleaned and from unstained surfaces, but also from non-cleaned stained surfaces, probably because of a particular microbial succession, distinct from the original succession during stain formation. Variations in relative abundance of Bacteroidota and Eurotiomycetes classes and Exophiala genus were higher when the sponge was used in addition to the scalpel. The bacteria Filomicrobium and the fungi Isaria and Cephalotrichum were identified on sponge-cleaned surfaces and on the sponge itself, pointing to a contaminant status due to the cleaning method. Overall, it suggests that post-cleaning pioneer communities may play an important role in orienting stain reformation in caves. Sponges routinely used by restorers to curb microbial stains may bring microbial contaminants, which questions current cleaning practices in show caves.

Influence of the last (de)glaciation on a complex cave system: Grønli-Seter cave system, Northern Norway

Cave studies enable us to unravel valuable information on landscape evolution. In glacial settings, the glacial cycles induced fluctuations in the underground hydraulic regime, sediment availability and base level in adjacent caves. Here, we present our work on the Grønli-Seter cave system in Northern Norway, which comprises >8 km of passage length at an elevation between 250 m and present sea level. By linking cave morphology and deposits to shifting glacier configurations and external base level changes during the last deglaciation and the Early Holocene, we establish how the hydraulic conditions in the cave system shifted in pace with glacier fluctuations. Maze sections and phreatic loops appear in a hydraulic confined setting close to the interface between the calcite marble and the overlying mica schist. Scallops in the cave walls demonstrate slow, ascending water flow, evidence of subglacial speleogenesis under wet-based, topographically constrained glaciers with a gentle surface slope. Moreover, cave morphology and clastic deposits indicate various hydrological phases of descending water flow, stagnant conditions, and excessive flow rates. Our work establishes that the last glaciation and deglaciation had an insignificant effect on the cave system's solutional development. In contrast, the cave sediments reveal diverse hydraulic conditions that may be related to shifting glacier configurations. This research offers valuable insights into glacier ice-contact speleogenesis and landscape development in glacial terrains.

Nonmatrix pores form high-permeability zones in carbonate layers: The Furna Feia cave in the Potiguar Basin, Brazil

Studying nonmatrix porosity in reservoirs is challenging, especially between core samples and seismic scales. To fill this gap, this work studied a karst system as an analog for a nonmatrix carbonate reservoir. We used a multidisciplinary approach, analyzing host rock data (petrography, petrophysics, and tectonic history) and porosity geometry (terrestrial laser scanner, ground penetrating radar, and field analysis). The karst system occurs in Cretaceous carbonates of the Jandaíra Formation along a regional subaerial unconformity that forms the boundary between lagoonal facies (bed package II) and tidal bar facies (BP-III). BP-I (tidal bar 1) is observed at the base of the cave, while BP-II is in the middle of the cave walls, and BP-III (tidal bar 2) occurs at the ceiling. We find that matrix pores are more pervasive in BP-I. Nonmatrix pores predominate in BP-II and BP-III but mostly in the boundary between them. Horizontal dissolution (decametric-cavernous pores) is more intense along the subaerial unconformity. Metric nonmatrix pores, such as gigapores (pockets) and cavernous pores (cupolas), occur within dolomitic lagoonal facies but predominate in tidal bar facies at the cave ceiling. Most of these metric pores are elongated, and their principal axes are preferentially oriented along NW–SE-striking fractures, indicating tectonic control of the Poço Verde Fault Zone. In this way, we conclude that nonmatrix porosity follows tectonic features below a subaerial unconformity, forming high-permeability zones in carbonate layers. Dolomitization guides the fractures intensity, leading to their consequent enlargement. The features studied here led to cave evolution. These findings can guide karst reservoir prediction.

Microbiological exploration of the Cueva del Viento lava tube system in Tenerife, Canary Islands.

Cueva del Viento, located in the Canary Islands, Spain, is the Earth's sixth-longest lava tube, spanning 18,500 m, and was formed approximately 27,000 years ago. This complex volcanic cave system is characterized by a unique geomorphology, featuring an intricate network of galleries. Despite its geological significance, the geomicrobiology of Cueva del Viento remains largely unexplored. This study employed a combination of culture-dependent techniques and metabarcoding data analysis to gain a comprehensive understanding of the cave's microbial diversity. The 16S rRNA gene metabarcoding approach revealed that the coloured microbial mats (yellow, red and white) coating the cave walls are dominated by the phyla Actinomycetota, Pseudomonadota and Acidobacteriota. Of particular interest is the high relative abundance of the genus Crossiella, which is involved in urease-mediated biomineralization processes, along with the presence of genera associated with nitrogen cycling, such as Nitrospira. Culture-dependent techniques provided insights into the morphological characteristics of the isolated species and their potential metabolic activities, particularly for the strains Streptomyces spp., Paenarthrobacter sp. and Pseudomonas spp. Our findings underscore the potential of Cueva del Viento as an ideal environment for studying microbial diversity and for the isolation and characterization of novel bacterial species of biotechnological interest.

Biofilms from the Kapova Cave Walls as a Source of Hydrolase Producers

Biofilms from the Kapova Cave Walls as a Source of Hydrolase Producers

Effects of hygrothermal properties and boundary condition uncertainties in heat and mass transfer simulations of cave walls

In the Mogao Grottoes, hygrothermal cycling is the main cause for the observed mural deterioration development. A coupled heat and mass transfer (HMT) model in cave walls is constructed; it describes the hygrothermal behavior in porous wall construction and materials. This model allows us to evaluate their abilities to regulate microclimate conditions in caves and ensure a suitable protective environment. In this paper, finite variation effects in boundary conditions and material characteristics on the HMT model response are investigated. To determine the most influential hygrothermal parameters, further uncertainties in the parameters (density, heat capacity, thermal conductivity, adsorption isotherm and vapor permeability) and boundary conditions of the model are discussed. Additionally, both quantitative local sensitivity analysis (LSA) and global sensitivity analysis (GSA) was conducted to analyze the input parameters of the numerical model to identify the primary input parameters influencing the model's results. The results show that density and heat capacity do not significantly influence the simulated results when these properties are changed to values 2.5 times greater than those of the reference case. A lower vapor permeability or thermal conductivity and an improved adsorption isotherm are better for maintaining a stable humidity environment and reducing the mural salt disease risk. Note that the boundary conditions significantly affect the simulated results, especially reducing the average air relative humidity value; the amplitude air temperature value seems more beneficial for suppressing the salt damage risk to mural paintings.

A Review on Neuroesthetics and Neurosart

Man has always felt different and special from other living things in the universe he lives in. He makes sense of the world he lives in, thinks about it, and brings theories and explanations about existence. He wants to be freed from his impulses, he rejects his animal nature. For example, if he is making love, it is out of love. While this whole point of view does not make man as free as a cat in living his impulsiveness, man is nevertheless willing to separate his animal nature from other species with thick lines by means of art and aesthetics. Because to the extent that art and aesthetics distance people from their predatory nature, they will provide safe spaces for them. Since the pictures he drew on the cave walls, he is now on a higher level dominating nature. He will not eat every dish that is put in front of him, for example, he will look for artistic touches. With all these aspects, it would not be wrong to say that art and aesthetics have a very old history. As in almost every subject, art and aesthetics also have points in terms of neuroscience. In this sense, Neuroesthetics and Neuroart provides explanations about the nature of human, art and aesthetics. It explores how the enormous synaptic connections, the neuroplastic brain, reach a line of transformation with artistic and aesthetic stimuli. In our study, we will focus on the contribution of art and artistic stimuli to the simultaneous development of the right and left brain, especially to the orbito prontal part of the brain. However, within the scope of neuroaesthetics, the effects of aesthetics on the nucleus accumbens (reward center) as well as the effects of art on the release of the happiness hormone oxytocin and its beneficial reducing effect on mental disorders such as depression will be emphasized. In addition, the differences in the amygdala region of the brain in syndromes such as autism, unlike healthy groups, and the outcomes of this difference in the artistic field will be discussed. In addition to all these, emphasis will be placed on early diagnosis methods of diseases such as stroke and Alzheimer’s through artistic works. In creating this review article, publications of refereed journals published in fields such as Google Academy, master’s and doctoral theses published in national and international thesis centers, and some books and additional resources published in the field of neuroaestheticsneuroart were used methodologically. In our related study, experimental designs made in this sense will be included in the literature and theories on the indispensability of art and aesthetics for human nature will be included.

Red Dyes from West to East in Medieval Europe: From Portuguese Manuscript Illuminations to Romanian Textiles

Red is the color par excellence, its symbolism being linked with protection and magic through its primary attributes, fire and blood. It was the predominant color from the earliest times, certainly during the Greek and Roman periods and into Medieval Europe, until blue became a competitor around the 13th century. Mineral pigments, like iron oxides, were the first red sources, used to draw lines, dots, or spots on cave walls or stones. Later, other mineral red pigments were also exploited: Cinnabar, natural mercury sulfide, since the Neolithic, and realgar, arsenic trisulfide, in Ancient Egypt. Scientific investigation revealed that, although inorganic pigments were mainly used in painting, iron oxides and cinnabar were also the first available sources for coloring textiles. Plant dyes have been known since the Neolithic, exploited by people living in climatically mild areas rich in vegetation. Their use is strongly connected with two other fundamental textile processes: Spinning and weaving. Scholarly literature indicates Egyptian privet (henna, Lawsonia inermis) as the oldest red vegetal source used. Although widely known as a source of brown, the dried leaves, when powdered and treated with lime water, yield an intense orange red, which is efficient for dyeing the body — skin and hair — and textiles of animal origin. Madder (Rubia tinctorum or relatives) was the first dye to be reported from archaeological European Bronze and Iron Ages textiles preserved in the Hallstatt salt mines, Scandinavian bog sites, and other European burials. Apart from madder, the most widely appreciated red dye sources in the European Classical period were kermes (Kermes vermilio and K. ilicis), purple (species of sea snails from the Muricidae family), and extracts of red tree resins, as dragon’s blood (e.g. Dracaena draco, Dracaena cinnabari, and Daemonorops draco). These sources were used for textile dyeing and as organic pigments in paintings.

Influence of principals' use of management information system in managing public senior secondary schools in Central Senatorial Zone, Kaduna State, Nigeria

The study assessed principals’ use of management information systems (MIS) in managing public secondary schools in Central Senatorial Zone, Kaduna State. The study was guided by three research questions with corresponding 3 objectives and 3 null hypotheses. The research design used for this study was descriptive survey research design. The total population of the study consisted of 168 principals and vice principals drawn from all 168 public senior secondary schools in the central senatorial zone of Kaduna State. The sample size of the study consisted of 84 respondents drawn from 84 secondary schools using a simple random sampling technique. The researcher’s self-developed instrument which consisted of 24 items was used for data collection. The instrument was validated and it yielded 0.63 as the logical validity index. The instrument was pilot tested on 20 principal and vice principal and the coefficient of internal consistency of 0.72 was obtained. Descriptive statistics of mean and standard deviation were used to answer the research questions while Pearson product moment correlation was used to test all the hypotheses at a 0.05 level of significance. The major findings of the study indicated that MIS is effective in managing various aspects of staff and students' records and shows a significant relationship between MIS use and the management of students’ records, administrative competence, and teachers’ computer skills in recording students’ scores in public senior secondary schools in Central Senatorial Zone of Kaduna State. This implies that no meaningful records management process can ignore the impact of MIS in effective records management since it is clear that information creation, storage and retrieval have gone from pictorial representations on the walls of caves and artefacts to the invention of writing and computers. The study recommends that efforts should be intensified by government and stakeholders in education in collaboration with the School Based Management Committee (SBMC) to introduce and ensure its implementation of the use of modern technology such as Education Management Information System (MIS) for improved method of record management of students in public senior secondary schools of Central Senatorial Zone, Kaduna State.

AESTHETICAL SIGNIFICANCE OF DECORATED WOODEN COVERS OF THE MANUSCRIPTS UNDER JAIN SCHOOL OF PAINTING IN THE MEDIVAL PERIOD

Jain school of paintings has a special feature in the wider perspective of Indian painting. The rich form of Jain art started in the form of sculptures and cave wall paintings. Later on, a new original form of Jain art started in the form of manuscript painting, which is based on various motifs of miniature style, such as - illustrated palm leaves, illustrated cloth paintings and illustrated paper books etc. Illustrated examples of Jain painting have been found in the handwritten texts made in all these motifs, along with these, the wooden covers which were kept above and below the manuscripts for the protection of these texts, have also been collected from private Collection and museums. These wooden covers were made to keep the palm leaves safe. Along with manuscript paintings, painters used to decorate these panels with beautiful figures and stories. The free expression of the painter can be seen in the depiction of these wooden covers. Like manuscripts, these plates also hold a special place in art history.There is a wonderful depiction of Indian animals and birds, geometrical shapes, design of bellflowers, columbines and religious symbols on these illustrated wooden covers of manuscripts. In addition to decorations, these panels also depict various contemporary events and cultural themes. Due to the uniqueness of designs and the amazing depiction of these wooden book covers it can be inferred that the painters who created them must have been highly skilled. These wonderful examples of paintings from Jain school of paintings have special importance in art history and Jain culture. The objective of the research is to do artistic analysis of these wooden manuscripts covers. Although analyzing all the collected data from the museums and manuscript centers was a challenging task for the researcher but eventually efforts were made to publicize the facts in detail.

Structural and Geomechanical Analysis of Natural Caves and Rock Shelters: Comparison between Manual and Remote Sensing Discontinuity Data Gathering

The stability of many shallow caves and rock shelters relies heavily on understanding rock discontinuities, such as stratification, faults, and joints. Analyzing these discontinuities and determining their orientations and dispersion are crucial for assessing the overall stability of the cave or shelter. Traditionally, this analysis has been conducted manually using a compass with a clinometer, but it has certain limitations, as only fractures located in accessible areas like the lower part of cave walls and entrances are visible and can be assessed. Over the past decade, remote sensing techniques like LiDAR and photogrammetry have gained popularity in characterizing rocky massifs. These techniques provide 3D point clouds and high-resolution images of the cave or shelter walls and ceilings. With these data, it becomes possible to perform a three-dimensional reconstruction of the cavity and obtain important parameters of the discontinuities, such as orientation, spacing, persistence, or roughness. This paper presents a comparison between the geomechanical data obtained using the traditional manual procedures (compass readings in accessible zones) and a photogrammetric technique called Structure from Motion (SfM). The study was conducted in two caves, namely, the Reguerillo Cave (Madrid) and the Cova dos Mouros (Lugo), along with two rock shelters named Abrigo de San Lázaro and Abrigo del Molino (Segovia). The results of the study demonstrate an excellent correlation between the geomechanical parameters obtained from both methods. Indeed, the combination of traditional manual techniques and photogrammetry (SfM) offers significant advantages in developing a more comprehensive and realistic discontinuity census.

THE INFLUENCE OF POLITICAL EVENTS AND IDEOLOGY ON THE FORMATION OF THE PICTURE CONCEPT OF DUNHUANG CAVES FRESCOS

The article is devoted to an analysis of the figurative concepts of the Dunhuang cave wall paintings. It was determined that, despite the fact that the Dunhuang wall painting is an example of Buddhist art, it represents a syncretism of Buddhism and local beliefs—Taoism and Confucianism—which manifested itself in the depiction of characters from Buddhism and Taoism in one plot. Dunhuang cave murals are not uniform in style and execution techniques. Its genesis testifies that in the early stages it was a literal borrowing of the ancient Indian traditions of Buddhist mural painting; instead, there was a gradual layering of local painting techniques from the Central Plains of China. This led to the diversification of cave wall paintings of later periods and eventually led to the formation of a specific stylistic direction of "Chinese secular Buddhism," in which realistic painting plays an important role—the portrait genre of benefactors and the landscape genre of "mountains and waters."