Wall Paintings Research Articles

Ground-Based Remote Standoff Laser Spectroscopies and Reflectance Spectral Imaging for Multimodal Analysis of Wall Painting Stratigraphy.

This paper presents a novel multimodal remote sensing setup to analyze the complex stratigraphy of historical wall paintings at distances of order 10 m. The proposed method enables comprehensive investigation of the chemical composition of multilayer paint stratigraphy by combining standoff laser-induced breakdown spectroscopy for elemental profiling with noninvasive standoff Raman spectroscopy and visible and near-infrared (400-900 nm) reflectance spectral imaging for depth-resolved complementary material characterization from a range of distances with instruments and operators located on stable ground. Following proof-of-concept laboratory tests, the feasibility and effectiveness of this standoff analytical approach is demonstrated through field analysis of a whitewashed historical wall painting, successfully identifying at least seven distinct layers from a distance of 7 m. The remote sensing method presented here can also be applied to other scientific and industrial domains to characterize the chemical composition of layered materials at a distance.

Laboratory X-ray powder micro-diffraction in the research of painted artworks

Painted artworks represent a significant group of cultural heritage artifacts, which are primarily admired because of their aesthetic quality. Nevertheless, the value of each particular painting depends also on what is known about it. Material investigation of paintings is one of the most reliable sources of information. Materials in painted artworks (i.e. panel, easel and miniature paintings, wall paintings, polychromed sculptures etc.) represent an extensive set of inorganic and organic phases, which are often present in complicated mixtures and exhibit characteristics reflecting their geological genesis (mineral pigments), manufacturing technology (artificial pigments), diverse biological nature (binders or dyes) or secondary changes (degradation or intentional later interventions). The analyses of paintings are often made challenging by the heterogeneous nature and minute size of micro-samples or, in some cases, even by the impossibility of sampling due to the preciousness, fragility or small dimensions of the artwork. This review demonstrates the successful implementation of laboratory X-ray powder micro-diffraction for material investigation of paintings, illustrating its efficiency for mineralogical analysis of (i) earth-based materials indicating the provenance of paintings, (ii) copper-based pigments pointing to their origin, and (iii) products of both salt corrosion and saponification enabling one to reveal the deterioration and probable original appearance of artworks.

Materials and Techniques of the Mural Paintings in the Church-Ossuary of the Rila Monastery, Bulgaria

This presented research examined the wall paintings in the Church-Ossuary Presentation of the Blessed Virgin, part of the most important Rila Monastery complex in Bulgaria, painted by the painters from Mount Athos in 1795. The painting materials used to create the unique murals were studied for the first time by optical microscopy (OM), attenuated total reflectance Fourier transform infrared (ATR–FTIR), scanning electron microscopy energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (SEM–EDS), and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). The vibrational and elemental analysis showed that the color palette of the paintings is composed of pigments traditional for Orthodox church wall paintings such as natural pigments, including yellow ochre, red ochre, green earth, and calcite, as well as other historical pigments of synthetic origin, including smalt, red lead, cinnabar, and verdigris. The analysis of the binders by the ATR–FTIR spectroscopy and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) analysis implied the use of the post-Byzantine egg tempera technique. Only the blue backgrounds in the murals were painted using a smalt-based paint mixed with a carbohydrate binder. Based on the current analysis and comparison with the successive paintings in the other churches of the Rila Monastery, it could be concluded that the technology of the painting process followed by the Athonite artists during the work in the Church-Ossuary became a point of reference for many Bulgarian icon-painters later.

Locking organic solvents by crystallization-induced polymer network

Organogels that lock organic solvents within a polymer network shows promising applications in ice-phobicity, anti-biofouling, conserving cultural heritage etc. However, the synthesis of organogels by versatile and cost-effective methods still remain challenging. Here, we introduce a novel and economical approach to organogel preparation via crystallization-induced polymer precipitation, which involves the straightforward blending of carbonyl contained polymer, nano Ca(OH)2, and excess ethyl acetate (EA). During the formation, nano Ca(OH)2 reacts with EA to produce ethanol and calcium acetate, in which Ca2+ ionically bonds with carbonyl of polymer. Due to the low solubility in EA and ethanol, calcium acetate initiates crystallization. The interaction between Ca(CH3COO)2 and polymer induces the separation of polymer from the solvent, thereby forming a network that locks the surplus EA and ethanol. More importantly, the organogel is capable not only of encapsulating 12 organic solvents within its precursor but also of effectively removing various aged polymeric coatings from wall paintings without leaving residues. This innovative organogel system marks a significant forward in the realm of organogel with applications in conservation and surface engineering.

Understanding the Common Defects in Commercial Buildings: Types, Causes and Remedial Actions

Commercial building maintenance management constitutes a pertinent issue of global concern for all related stakeholders. In Malaysia, the management of commercial building maintenance plays a crucial role in achieving the goal of providing safety to occupants and the building itself. However, there is a paucity of studies that have comprehensively explored all dimensions of commercial building defects in relation to maintenance management. This research was also conducted to identify and analyze the typical defects that occur in commercial structures, understand their underlying causes, assess their impact on safety, functionality and propose effective remedial actions. The study utilized a qualitative approach for data collection. The findings indicated that cracked floors, floor tile failures, wall tiles failure, damaged ceiling, paint peeling and faulty light bulbs were some of the flaws that degrade commercial building. The study’s outcome revealed that defects not only deface the aesthetic appearance of the commercial buildings but also inhibit the functionality of the buildings and depreciate the overall satisfaction. The research limitations include using commercial buildings (shopping complexes or malls) that have been operating for more than 20 years. This study offers invaluable insights for maintenance organizations and maintenance department staff who are genuinely interested in improving commercial buildings’ maintenance management to optimize staff’s performance and enhance the user satisfaction of the buildings in Malaysia and globally.

Powerful Patina: The Value of Odors in a Tibetan Buddhist Temple

ABSTRACT In the past decades, attention towards a more sensory perception in the arts and architecture has gained momentum and concerns a variety of disciplines. Nonetheless, hands-on conservation efforts still overwhelmingly concentrate on the visual qualities and values of places. In the following article, I present a case study of a Tibetan–Buddhist temple in Ladakh/India that empirically examines questions of value as they extend to the idea of patina found on wall paintings inside the temple produced by the burning of butter lamps. The layer of soot which obscures these centuries-old wall paintings has particular olfactory qualities. The paper draws from my professional and personal experience as art conservator working with an NGO from 2004 until 2014. It is a methodological re-thinking of our original conservation approach through the framework of Alois Riegl's value model applied to olfactory perceptions of patina. Examined are the meaning of odors concerning heritage values, memory, and the formation of identity. Odors are site-specific, therefore, conservation work at heritage sites needs to include the documentation and value assessment of their olfactory qualities to determine the impact a removal of patina may have on stakeholder communities.

Characterisation of rouaite, an unusual copper-containing pigment in early modern English wall paintings, by synchrotron micro X-Ray diffraction and micro X-Ray absorption spectroscopy

Although the use of verditer, a synthetically produced copper carbonate pigment chemically analogous to azurite (Cu3(CO3)2(OH)2), in early modern wall paintings is regularly reported in grey literature, its detection in wall paintings is typically unavailable in a public forum. This article focusses on two particular samples (M9 and T1) initially suspected to contain copper blue pigments from decorative wall painting schemes in domestic houses across a range of status groups, in eastern and south-eastern England, dated to 1550-1650. Interest in verditer synthesis procedures is found in textual sources including both historic manuals and current scientific literature. The unreliability of the synthesis, particularly for blue verditer, however, is widely documented. Here, we report a multimodal study employing SEM-EDX, SR-μ\\documentclass[12pt]{minimal} \\usepackage{amsmath} \\usepackage{wasysym} \\usepackage{amsfonts} \\usepackage{amssymb} \\usepackage{amsbsy} \\usepackage{mathrsfs} \\usepackage{upgreek} \\setlength{\\oddsidemargin}{-69pt} \\begin{document}$$\\mu$$\\end{document}PXRD mapping, and SR-μ\\documentclass[12pt]{minimal} \\usepackage{amsmath} \\usepackage{wasysym} \\usepackage{amsfonts} \\usepackage{amssymb} \\usepackage{amsbsy} \\usepackage{mathrsfs} \\usepackage{upgreek} \\setlength{\\oddsidemargin}{-69pt} \\begin{document}$$\\mu$$\\end{document}XANES spectroscopy to characterise the phases present in two wall painting samples, one c. 1600/early 1600s (M9) and the other c. 1600 (T1). In addition to assessment of the presence of verditer, this study presents the first identification of rouaite, a synthetic copper hydroxynitrate mineral (Cu2(NO3)(OH)3), in wall painting samples. Rouaite, shown in a previous publication to be a common byproduct of replications of the historical verditer synthetic recipes, appears in combination with verditer and alone. Its infrequent identification in paintings and murals is considered in light of analytical challenges. The presence of copper hydroxychlorides is also discussed in the context of rouaite stability and degradation. These results represent a significant development in our knowledge of the early modern palette in England and historical verditer synthesis and advances our understanding of how these painting schemes may be best preserved in the future.

Advancing gamma radiation shielding with Bitumen-WO₃ composite materials

This research focuses on a manner in which bitumen-WO₃ (petroleum-derived bitumen mixed with tungsten trioxide nanoparticles) materials can be a good shielding candidate against gamma radiation. The objective we set in mixing WO₃ nanoparticles with bitumen was to take advantage of both the bitumen's natural qualities and the WO₃'s excellent shielding capabilities. The prepared composites were tested against various gamma-ray energies emitted from multiple gamma-ray sources to examine their shielding capabilities. The X-ray diffraction (XRD) analysis of the composites' structural properties verified the effective integration of the WO₃ with the bitumen structure. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) showed that microstructural changes, such as an increase in material density and an improvement in particle dispersion, are caused by a rise in WO3 concentration, which is an essential step toward efficient shielding. Then, the Mean Free Path (MFP), Half-value Layer (HVL), and Linear Attenuation Coefficients (μl) were computed, showing that the composite's capacity to reduce gamma radiation is much enhanced by raising the WO₃ content, especially at lower gamma-ray energies. For instance, at 20 keV, the LAC of 50 wt% WO₃-bitumen composite increased to 9.18 cm⁻1 compared to pure bitumen's 0.40 cm⁻1, while the HVL decreased from 1.73 cm to 0.08 cm, and the MFP dropped from 2.3 cm to 0.1 cm” The results demonstrate the potential of bitumen-WO₃ composites as a sustainable and efficient material for radiation shielding, particularly highlighting their applicability in various sectors, including the development of building wall paints against gamma radiation.

Comparison of wall paintings at Ostia Antica by NMR depth profiling

Painted walls were analyzed at Ostia Antica, the ancient port of Rome, with the aim to trace the evolution of the buildings in the city. Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) depth profiles were acquired from walls and mortar fragments to image the stratigraphy of the mortar-layer preparations for the painted surfaces produced over more than five centuries from the second century BC to the third century AD. The profiles are compared in search of similarity to obtain clues suggesting alike workmanship and contemporaneous origin, and to retrace the transformations of execution technique in time.

Exploring Carolingian and Romanesque cycles: a study of the detached wall paintings from the Church of St. Johann in Müstair

Twenty-six fragment of wall paintings detached from the upper register of the Carolingian and Romanesque cycles of the church of St. John in Müstair (Switzerland) have been part of the Swiss National Museum collection since the beginning of the twentieth century. As some of these objects were in a critical state of conservation, a research project was launched to assess and document their conditions, and to gain knowledge about painting materials and execution techniques, in view of planning a conservation project. In a first phase, non-destructive analyses were carried out, using handheld XRF and portable FTIR spectroscopy; followed by the targeted collection of samples for detailed analysis in the laboratory. In parallel, similar investigations were carried out on the imprints left on the walls of the church’s attic. The results allowed the identification of the pigment palette and the execution technique. Besides earth pigments such as ochres, a lime-based white, probably bianco di San Giovanni, and limited amounts of lapis lazuli were used in both painting cycles. For the Carolingian cycle, Egyptian blue and mixtures of several lead-based pigments were also identified. In several instances, the deterioration of lead-based pigments resulted in shades of grey to black severely modifying the original appearance of the wall paintings. Additionally, both cycles have suffered from pigment alteration due to fire. The obtained results, together with iconographic considerations, allowed for an extended interpretation of possible original colour palette.Graphical

Adaptive superpixel segmentation and pigment identification of colored relics based on visible spectral images

This work explores the extraction of the spatial distribution and chemical composition information of pigments in colored relics through visible spectral images. An adaptive superpixel segmentation method is proposed to extract the spatial distribution information of pigments. Quadtree decomposition is applied to generate nonuniform initial seed points based on the image homogeneity. These seed points are used as the initial cluster centers in an extended simple linear iterative clustering (SLIC) algorithm for visible spectral images to create superpixels of varying sizes that reflect the homogeneity. Each superpixel is subsequently treated as an individual area in the colored relics, and a pigment identification method based on the visible spectral reflectance is proposed to identify the pigments in these areas. A standard reference database is constructed using samples that simulate the painting process of ancient wall paintings in the Mogao Grottoes. Geometric features, which are characterized by the linear combination of the normalized visible spectral reflectance, its slope and its curvature, are designed to represent the chemical composition of pigments. The geometric features of the superpixels are compared with those of the pigments in the database using the Euclidean distance to determine the pigments in each area of the colored relics. This work is expected to provide scientific guidance for pigment selection in the color restoration of colored relics.

Mantha Zarmakoupi. 2023. Shaping Roman landscape: ecocritical approaches to architecture and wall painting in early Imperial Italy. Malibu: J. Paul Getty Museum; 978-1-60606-848-9 hardback $65.

Mantha Zarmakoupi. 2023. Shaping Roman landscape: ecocritical approaches to architecture and wall painting in early Imperial Italy. Malibu: J. Paul Getty Museum; 978-1-60606-848-9 hardback $65.

Phthalate Exposure and Pediatric Asthma: A Case Control Study Among Egyptian Children

Background: Phthalates, which are diesters of phthalic acid, are commonly used as plasticizers and additives in various consumer products. Several phthalates have been identified as substances of high concern. Exposure to phthalate esters (PAEs) has been linked to asthma in children, but the specific impacts of PAEs on asthmatic children were not well understood. Objective: The objective of this study was to compare urinary phthalate concentrations in asthmatic and non-asthmatic children and to identify potential sources of exposure as risk factors for asthma. Methods: A case control study was conducted for 100 Egyptian children aged 8-16 years (50 asthmatics and 50 healthy controls). Asthma was identified using GINA guidelines. Socio-demographic and probable risk factors were assessed, in addition to measuring phthalate levels in urine samples using high-performance liquid chromatography. Results and conclusion: Mean urinary Mono-methyl as well as Mono-benzyl levels were highly significant in asthmatic children compared to control group (895.26ng/ mL vs 548.55 ng/mL and 13.5 ng/mL vs 2.07 ng/mL respectively) (p= 0.001). The number of asthmatic children living in houses painted with non-plastic paint was significantly lower (P<0.05) than children living in houses painted with other paints. No association between floor type and asthma was reported. The frequent use of personal care products and plastic painting of walls were identified by multiple logistic regression analysis as the highly significant predictors of asthma in the studied subjects. The declared higher levels of urinary phthalate metabolites (Mono-methyl and Mono-benzyl) in Egyptian asthmatic children may reveal the probable risk of phthalate exposure in triggering bronchial asthma.

ASPECTS ON PRESERVING WALL PAINTINGS (EXAMPLE OF UKRAINE AND CHINA)

Analysis of tested restoration methods and their effects on historical fresco restoration cycles emphasized the specification of previous achievements and losses in the restoration industry. As examples, the wall paintings of the Dunhuang sanctuaries in China and the Trinity Gate Church in Kyiv were analyzed. Based on modern comprehensive research, periodic photo documentation and scientific monitoring of the monument, the main factors influencing the preservation of the mural of the Trinity Gate Church have been identified in the context of studying the problems of the current state of monumental painting. With a perspective on the development of heritage preservation measures and recommendations for further conservation, the study aims to determine the most effective ways to maintain the artwork's original state. The original chemical composition of the mineral pigments of the sanctuaries of Dunhuang and the Trinity Gate Church was determined. The common problems of the state of emergency for the wall paintings of Dunhuang and the Trinity Gate Church are outlined.

Perancangan Risk Assessment dengan Metode Kualitatif dan Kuantitatif pada Proyek Pembangunan Ruko di PT XYZ

PT XYZ, a contractor company in the construction sector, is currently working on a project to build 24 shop houses on Jl. Hospital, Bandung City, with a duration of 21 weeks from June to November 2024. This project is divided into several works, including preparation, structure, installation, plumber installation, electrical installation, and wall painting. The project faced challenges such as work accidents, material delays, and conflicts between foremen and subcontractor workers. Due to the lack of effective risk assessment, PT XYZ has difficulty providing a significant response to this problem. Research was conducted to design a risk assessment that includes qualitative and quantitative risk analysis. Qualitative methods are used to create probability impact matrices, risk watch lists and priority risks, while quantitative methods are used to calculate sensitivity analysis related to risk costs. From the research, 186 negative risks and 5 positive risks were found with classifications ranging from insignificant to catastrophic, with the largest risk cost reaching IDR 851,529,000. Researchers also designed contingency plans, checklist forms, material quality checks, and risk reporting to assist PT XYZ in handling project risks.

Diagnostic investigation of the wall paints conservative state in a hypogeal room of the archaeological park of Baia (Italy)

The present study investigated the correlation between the degradation processes of cultural heritage and the environmental parameters of the semi-confined site that houses it. The latter is a semi-underground room (nymphaeum) found in the Archaeological Park of Baia (Italy) dating back to the third century; it is decorated with marine motifs and painted with frescos techniques from the same period. Relative humidity and temperature were hourly registered, and the collected data were used to derive daily and annual profiles. The effects of microclimate induced degradation were investigated employing various techniques, such as Ion Chromatography for the chemical characterisation of deposits, and Thermography, for the individuation of biological layers. The data obtained showed that the underground environment, partially submerged by rising brackish water, was affected by the presence of biodeteriogens, whose distribution and growth is strongly favoured, above all, by the environmental parameters and by the substrate characteristics. All the data were then cross-referenced to obtain a complete knowledge of the conservation frameworks of the environments, essential to identify the most compatible and effective restoration methodologies to be applied in the conservation of the nymphaeum.

Characterization of multi-layered wall paintings from a Roman domus in Santa Maria Capua Vetere

This paper regards the preliminary characterization of wall paintings sampled in a Roman domus located in the city of Santa Maria Capua Vetere. Despite its history and archaeological remains, there is a lack of scientific studies on Roman materials and techniques adopted in this site. Samples were taken from different walls of the villa. Pigments, binders, and mortars were analyzed by optical and electronic microscopies, vibrational spectroscopies including Fourier transform infrared and micro-Raman imaging, and mass-spectrometry coupled to gas and liquid chromatography. Altogether, the multi-layers preparation, the rich pigments palette (both natural and synthetic ones) and the variety of the organic ligands used (terpenic resins or animal glue) support the hypothesis of a very wealthy owner. The absence of calcite in the pictorial layer and the presence of organic binders clearly indicates an a secco technique.

About the problems of the fixactive/protective products for wall paintings especially on the facades

About the problems of the fixactive/protective products for wall paintings especially on the facades

Atacamite discolouration under the influence of arsenates in wall paintings in the Kizil Grottoes, Xinjiang, China

This study was focused on a specific blue‒green pigment applied on the edges of the green blocks of wall paintings in the Kizil Grottoes, the earliest Buddhist cave complex in China containing many wall paintings. Based on in situ portable XRF analyses, μ-Raman spectroscope, elemental analysis (SEM–EDS and EPMA-WDS) and μ-XRPD analyses, the pigment was proven to be lavendulan [NaCaCu5(AsO4)4Cl·5H2O], which has not been reported in ancient wall painting studies before. Lavendulan was found to coexist with atacamite [Cu2(OH)3Cl] in some of the samples in the study and showed a nanoneedle-like morphology. Further investigations of lavendulan revealed that it was probably not originally used as a pigment but was generated by the transformation of atacamite under the influence of arsenates [As(V)] and Na+. This phenomenon and the related mechanism were discovered in this study and are discussed in this paper. As an important cultural heritage site in the Silk Road, the Route Network of the Chang’an-Tianshan Corridor and the Kizil Grottoes are listed as UNESCO World and Natural Heritage sites. The pigment types and preservation conditions of wall paintings are similar to those of many wall paintings found along the Silk Road, and further attention should be given to this discolouration mechanism for heritage site conservation.

Wall Drawing #736: Revealing Sol LeWitt’s Ink Mural Technique Using a Multi-Analytical Approach

Sol LeWitt, a pioneer of conceptual art, created during his career over 1350 wall drawings, including the Wall Drawing #736 (1993) at the Center for Contemporary Art Luigi Pecci in Prato (Prato, Italy). The painting, executed by Andrea Marescalchi and Antony Sansotta under LeWitt’s instructions, features a grid of coloured rectangles obtained by overlapping different layers of inks. During a 2021 restoration by the Wall Paintings and Stuccoes Department of the Opificio delle Pietre Dure (Firenze, Italy), an in-depth investigation of the composition and the materials used by LeWitt’s assistants in producing Wall Drawing #736 was performed. A multi-analytical approach entailing Raman spectroscopy, high-performance liquid chromatography coupled to diode array and high-resolution mass spectrometry, gas chromatography–mass spectrometry (GC–MS), and pyrolysis coupled with GC–MS was applied. Our results revealed the use of animal glue, shellac resin, paraffin wax, linseed oil, and various organic pigments. The binder in the preparation layer was identified as poly(vinyl acetate), while poly(n-butyl methacrylate) was determined as a fixative. This research provided valuable insights into LeWitt’s techniques. The acquired knowledge on the paint technique is highly relevant in supporting conservators in restoration and consolidating the many wall drawings produced exploiting the same technique all over the world.