Wall Painting Fragments Research Articles

Re St Michael and All Angels, Bampton

This Grade 1-listed mediaeval church had a substantial Georgian reredos. It dominated the east end of the church, hiding three-quarters of the plain-glazed east window. In 2012 a faculty permitted its temporary removal to another location in the church while essential works were done to the chancel. Following this, the consequent increase in light coming from the windows was welcomed by petitioners, and fragments of medieval wall painting were discovered behind plasterwork which the reredos had previously protected. The petitioners now wished to make the temporary removal of the reredos permanent, relocating it to hang above the west door.

Analysis of the ruined murals from the Resurrection Church of the Derevyanitsky Monastery (Veliky Novgorod, Russia): Dating and attribution

The Resurrection Church of the Derevyanitsky Monastery, one of the most significant historical and architectural monuments of Veliky Novgorod, was founded in 1335 by Archbishop Moses of Novgorod, painted by the order of Archbishop Vasily Kalika in 1348, and subsequently rebuilt several times, the last one at the end of 17th century. In the course of archeological excavations in 2013–2015, fragments of wall paintings were discovered, presumably dating back to 1348. A total of 63 fragments were examined using following analytical techniques: neutron activation and X-ray fluorescence spectroscopy, Raman and Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, polarized microscopy, and stratigraphic analysis. Set of pigments and wall painting structure were revealed. The indirect dating was implemented based on statistical treatment of experimental data. Additionally, methods of humanities were applied, such as content and comparative analysis of manuscripts, proved by archeological sources. This approach allowed to make an assumption about painting authorship, as well as to trace artistic contacts of Novgorod with the Byzantine world.

Characterization of Wall Painting Fragments from the West Courtyard Passage at St. Nicholas Church in Demre

Characterization of Wall Painting Fragments from the West Courtyard Passage at St. Nicholas Church in Demre

Optical microscopy and SEM-EDS on wall-painting fragments from the St. George’s cathedral at Novgorod

This paper presents the latest data obtained from the analyses of fragments of Russian-Byzantine wall paintings recovered from the architectural excavations carried out in the church of St. George in the Yuriev Princely Monastery built in 1119 at Veliky Novgorod, one of the oldest cities in Russia and UNESCO World site. In the last 7 years the archaeologists of the Institute of Archaeology of the Russian Academy of Sciences in Moscow excavated the 12th century layers and extracted a large number of wall-paintings fragments, which are extremely important for the reconstruction of the history of Novgorod and for the study of Russian-Byzantine art in general. The pigments employed for the paintings and the painting techniques, together with color layers, substrates and mortars, have been studied and analyzed in the last two years in the Laboratory of the Architectural Archaeology and Multidisciplinary Methods for Architectural Research, Institute of Archaeology of the Russian Academy of Sciences. The employed analytical methods were optical microscopy (OM), X-ray Fluorescence Spectrometry (XRF) and Scanning Electron Microscope with Energy Dispersive Spectrometry (SEM-EDS). OM permits to distinguish the superficial painting method, the inclusions in the mortars, the intonaco and intonachino layers and the various substrates. XRF was applied for a first screening of the fragments and for the first pigment identification. The samples of painted mortar were then mounted in epoxy resin and polished for the analysis with SEM-EDS. The analytical data we possessed up to now indicate a very classical Byzantine technique with the use of expensive pigments such as lazurite and cinnabar, but also green earth, various types of ochres and mixtures of pigments. Special care was taken for the identification of the substrates.

Comprehensive study of 12th century wall painting fragments from the St. George Cathedral of the Yuryev Monastery in Veliky Novgorod (Russia) using complementary physico-chemical methods

A total of 7 complementary methods have been applied to investigate unique pre-Mongolian 12th century wall paintings from the St. George Cathedral of the Yuriev Monastery in Veliky Novgorod, Russia. Both archaeological samples from the main space of the Cathedral and fragments in situ in the stairs tower of the Cathedral were studied. For the first time in Russia, sensitive neutron methods were used to study the elemental composition of pigments and plasters—neutron activation analysis and prompt gamma activation analysis. This research made it possible to determine elemental and mineral composition of the pigments and plasters used during creation of wall paintings; identify the technique of paintings; make assumptions about the different time of the paintings creation in the main space of the Cathedral and in its stairs tower; as well as reconstruct the presumable original view of the painting of the St. George figure. The discovery of the expensive lazurite pigment attested to the high status of the ktetor of the Cathedral’s murals. The obtained data were compared with Byzantine and Italian paintings of the same period churches.

Investigation of Ancient Wall Painting Fragments Discovered in the Roman Baths from Alburnus Maior by Complementary Non-Destructive Techniques

In this study, several wall painting fragments discovered in the Roman baths from the archeological site Alburnus Maior (Roşia Montană, Romania) were analyzed with the aim to investigate the material composition of both plasters and pictorial layers. Dated from the beginning of the second century AD, these rare findings stand among the oldest examples of preserved decorative polychrome paintings on plaster excavated thus far in the former territory of the Roman province of Dacia. A non-destructive multi-analytical approach based on complementary techniques was considered: Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy, X-ray fluorescence (XRF), X-ray diffraction (XRD), UV fluorescence, and hyperspectral imaging (HSI). The obtained results highlight a common Roman color palette mainly based on naturally occurring earth pigments. Red ochre, yellow ochre, manganese-rich ochres/wads, carbon black, and calcite were identified. A traditional two-layer sequence of plasters was found—arriccio (based on lime and siliceous sands), and intonaco (pure lime). The presence of an organic protein binder, identified via FTIR analysis, and sustained by combined imaging documentation, indicates that the pigments were applied a secco. The obtained results are discussed in relation to previous published data, and they can be considered as valuable archeological indicators that contribute to the understanding of the painting techniques and the materials used in the Roman provinces.

Multi-analytical identification of a painting workshop at the Roman archaeological site of Bilbilis (Saragossa, Spain)

In this work, we studied wall painting fragments from the exedra in Domus 1 and tablinum in the House of the Lararium in Bilbilis, an ancient Roman town in the Spanish province of Saragossa, in order to find whether the two paintings were produced by the same artisan workshop and to identify the painting technique used. For this purpose, we examined the paint and mortar layers of the fragments by using various semi-destructive instrumental techniques including X-ray diffraction (XRD), X-ray fluorescence (XRF) and Raman spectroscopies, and scanning electron microscopy/energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (SEM-EDS). The fragments used were representative of the colours in each paint, which included black, yellow, green, burgundy, beige and orange. Raman spectroscopy in combination with XRF analyses allowed the chemical composition of each pigment to be unequivocally established. All pigments (carbon, yellow ochre, a glauconite–Egyptian blue mixture, hematite, aragonite and red lead) were typically used in Hispania. Based on the Raman and XRD results, the mortars were obtained in the traditional manner by mixing sand and lime.

A multi-analytical study of funerary wall paintings in the Roman necropolis of Camino Viejo de Almodóvar (Córdoba, Spain)

The necropolis of Camino Viejo de Almodovar (Cordoba, southern Spain) is one of several burial grounds dating from Roman Corduba. In this work, we used various optical and laser techniques, including optical microscopy, scanning electron microscopy in combination with energy-dispersive spectroscopy and micro-Raman (μ-Raman) spectroscopy to identify the pigments used in wall painting fragments unearthed in excavations at the site. The results thus obtained were confirmed and supplemented by using X-ray fluorescence spectroscopy. The experimental evidence provided by these techniques allowed us to identify the materials used to obtain the pigments, namely: lime, hematite, cinnabar, goethite, Egyptian blue, coal and green earth.

Unearthing Houses in Porphyreon and Chhim. Structure, Spatial Development, and Decoration of Domestic Spaces in Late Antique Phoenicia

Porphyreon (Jiyeh/Nebi Younis) and Chhim were large rural settlements situated on the coast of modernday Lebanon, north of the Phoenician city of Sidon. As attested by the remains of residential architecture, they were thriving during the Roman Period and late Antiquity (1st–7th centuries AD). This article presents the preliminary observations on the domestic architecture uncovered at both sites, their spatial and social structure, as well as their furnishing and decoration, based on the fieldwork carried out in recent years by the joint PolishLebanese research team. The focus will be put on the wall painting fragments found in considerable numbers in Porphyreon. The iconographical and functional study of the paintings betrays to what extent the inhabitants of rural settlements in the coastal zone of the Levant were inclined to imitate the decoration of the urban houses known to them from the nearby towns, such as Berytus, but also from religious contexts represented by churches.

Chemical-technological research and radiocarbon AMS dating of wall painting fragments from the ruins of the XIIth-XIIIth centuries AD church from archaeological excavations in the city of Smolensk, Russia

In 2012, the ruins of a temple of the old Russian period were found during archaeological research in the medieval historical territory of Smolensk. The archaeological complex consists of the ruins of an ancient temple, built in the middle of the XIIth century AD, and adjacent to it from the South-West of the territory, which housed the remains of the market XI-turn XIII-XIV centuries AD and necropolis XIII–XVI centuries AD. Chronologically diverse use of the investigated territory up to the XVIth century AD was determined by the nearby Church. Approximately 1000 fragments of wall paintings, 5 fragments window glass and 4 glazed floor tiles were found near the ruins of the Church building. For the first time fragments of wall paintings medieval of Old Russian temple were dated by the AMS radiocarbon dating and went through chemical-technological research (analysis of the plaster foundation, the definition of used pigments) by X-RAY diffractometry (XRD) and scanning electron microscopy (SEM/EDS). Optical microscopy also was used for visual observations of the samples of the wall painting. According to the results of the radiocarbon analysis, the fragments of the wall paintings were divided into two chronological groups. The earlier belongs to the last quarter of the XIIth–the first quarter of the XIIIth century AD. Samples of the wall paintings from the second group are dated back to the third quarter of the XIIIth century AD. A narrow range of Accelerator Mass Spectrometry (AMS) radiocarbon dating of fragments of the murals, obtained from carbonates due to the presence of high content of C14 isotope in carbon of the plaster, is simultaneous in age to the moment of creation of the plaster base. As a result of chemical and technological researches of the fragments of the wall paintings it was established that the plaster basis of the fragments of the wall painting consists of two layers. The plaster base contains organic binders. Chemical and technological analysis of pigments presents the following results: (1) the basis of the blue paint layer is ultramarine (mineral) and anatase (mineral); (2) the basis of the green paint layer is celadonite (mineral); (3) the basis of the brown paint layer is ochre (clay); (4) black particles in the colorful mixture of brown is an organic wood coal pigment.

Macroscopic XRF imaging in unravelling polychromy on Mycenaean wall-paintings from the Palace of Nestor at Pylos

The wall painting fragments from the Mycenaean “Palace of Nestor” at Pylos, are characterized by their high artistic quality, their unusual iconographic variety and the use of tempera and secco painting techniques. Systematic in-situ XRF analyses combined with the results of other portable and laboratory analytical techniques have already revealed a rich gamut of inorganic pigments with respect to the common Aegean “palette”, including different white and black pigments, iron based ochres ranging from dark brown to orange and pinkish hues, manganese based umbers, natural copper based greens, goethite, Egyptian blue and organic purple dyes. Macroscopic X-ray Fluorescence (MA-XRF) imaging, although well-established for non-invasive analysis of historical or contemporary painted artworks has hitherto been applied in a few cases only regarding the study of ancient polychromy. The purpose of applying in-situ MA-XRF imaging on selected wall painting fragments from the Palace of Pylos was to evaluate the capabilities of this technique in identifying the composition of pigments and their spatial distribution within heavily deteriorated pictorial layers, and in revealing iconographic information invisible to the naked eye. The results of MA-XRF imaging allowed us to critically re-consider previous artistic reconstructions, providing significant evidence on the painting techniques and materials used by Late Bronze Age painters.

Non-destructive characterization of Egyptian Blue cakes and wall painting fragments from the east of Lake Van, Turkey.

A total of five Urartian blue cakes and two wall painting fragments, from excavations in different regions of the east of Lake Van, were analyzed by means of X-ray diffraction (XRD), micro-X-ray fluorescence spectrometry (μ-XRF), scanning electron microscopy combined with energy dispersive spectrometry (SEM-EDS) and Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FT-IR). All the studies were performed non-destructively considering the great archaeological importance of the samples. The results indicate the presence of Egyptian Blue, which is the first synthetic pigment, consists of crystals of calcium-copper tetrasilicate (cuprorivaite, CaCuSi4Ol0) along with unreacted quartz (SiO2) and in some cases. Comparison of the elemental compositions of the samples from Egypt and Mesopotamia suggests that EB cakes may be local products due to the presence of zinc. The absence of Sn on the other hand, indicates that the source of the copper may be a copper ore not bronze scrap.

The discovered painting decoration of the Vorontsov` Palace in St. Petersburg: Spectroscopic characterization in support of conservation

The paper reports about the unique discovery of fragments of wall painting of the middle of the XVIII century from the Vorontsov` Palace in St. Petersburg and its study by means of laser and IR spectroscopic techniques. The history of creation and reconstruction of the palace as well as technical and technological features of paintings are described.

Raman imaging to quantify the thermal transformation degree of Pompeian yellow ochre caused by the 79 AD Mount Vesuvius eruption.

Most of the wall paintings from Pompeii are decorated with red and yellow colors but the thermal impact of 79 AD Mount Vesuvius eruption promoted the partial transformation of some yellow-painted areas into red. The aim of this research is to develop a quantitative Raman imaging methodology to relate the transformation percentage of yellow ochre (goethite, α-FeOOH) into red color (hematite, α-Fe2O3) depending on the temperature, in order to apply it and estimate the temperature at which the pyroclastic flow impacted the walls of Pompeii. To model the thermal impact that took place in the year 79 AD, nine wall painting fragments recovered in the archeological site of Pompeii and which include yellow ochre pigment were subjected to thermal ageing experiments (exposition to temperatures from 200 to 400 °C every 25 °C). Before the experiments, elemental information of the fragments was obtained by micro-energy dispersive X-ray fluorescence (μ-ED-XRF). The fragments were characterized before and after the exposition using Raman microscopy to monitor the transformation degree from yellow to red. The quantitative Raman imaging methodology was developed and validated using synthetic pellets of goethite and hematite standards. The results showed almost no transformation (0.5% ± 0.4) at 200 °C. However, at 225 °C, some color transformation (26.9% ± 2.8) was observed. The most remarkable color change was detected at temperatures between 250 °C (transformation of 46.7% ± 1.7) and 275 °C (transformation of 101.1% ± 1.2). At this last temperature, the transformation is totally completed since from 275 to 400 °C the transformation percentage remained constant.

First Analytical Study on Second-Century Wall Paintings from Ulpia Traiana Sarmizegetusa: Insights on the Materials and Painting Technique

ABSTRACTThis article reports the first analytical study carried on some of the oldest surviving examples of Roman wall paintings, discovered so far on the Romanian territory. Dating back to the second century, these decorative polychrome wall painting fragments were found during an archaeological research carried at Ulpia Traiana Sarmizegetusa, and represent the first mural paintings ever found on site. A set of samples was analyzed using various non-destructive and micro-invasive techniques in order to investigate the material composition and explore the painting technique. The employed methodology allowed for an in-depth characterization of the color palette, generally based on mineral pigments such as red earth, celadonite, yellow ochre, calcite, and strontianite. The absence of organic binders and the possibility to differentiate specific spectral features infer the use of a fresco-secco technique. The results obtained provide important data regarding the artistic and technological skill of ancient painters in this part of the Roman Empire, and they significantly contribute to the research and conservation work carried out at this impressive archaeological site.

Was Zoroastrian Art Invented in Chorasmia?

Abstract Before the recent discoveries of the Karakalpak-Australian Expedition to Ancient Chorasmia (KAE) evidence for Zoroastrianism in Chorasmia was scant, coming only from the official use of the Zoroastrian calendar, the onomastics, and the archaeologically documented funerary practices of the region, while the interpretation of remains of temples or fire chapels is subject to discussion. During the last seasons of work on the material of the KAE excavations at Akchakhan-kala, the royal seat of Chorasmia in the 2nd century BC – 2nd century AD, substantial fragments of wall paintings from the rear wall of the main columned hall of the “Ceremonial Complex” were cleaned and reassembled. It appeared at once that they belong to oversized standing figures, most probably deities. The best preserved image has been identified as Srōsh, god of prayer and protector of the soul after death. The second figure is probably to be identified as a personification of the group of the Fravashis, pre-created souls of the ancestors and protectors of “Aryan people” in battles, also worshipped as deities. A third figure, very partly preserved, perhaps represents Zam-Spandarmad, goddess of the Earth. If these identifications are valid, these deities appear to have been chosen because of their association with the turn of the year. This would be consistent with the possibility that the already known “portrait gallery” of Akchakhan-kala was related to the commemoration of royal and clanic ancestors at the end of the year. Notwithstanding much still needs to be elucidated, it appears already certain that these paintings, dating about the beginning of the 1st century AD, are the earliest documented attempt to create a Zoroastrian art directly inspired by the Avesta. The identification of some figures in the Toprak-kala “High Palace” (2nd-3rd centuries AD) can perhaps be reconsidered in the light of this new evidence.

Characterization of Wallpaintings from the Caliphal Baths of Cordoba (Spain) by X-Ray Diffraction and Raman Microspectroscopy

Wallpainting fragments from the Caliphal Baths of Cordoba, Spain, were studied in this work for the first time. X-ray diffraction (XRD) and Raman microspectroscopy allowed the chemical nature of the pigments used by the Arabic artists of the time to be identified. All pigments were applied over a gypsum priming layer. The white, red, and yellow colors used were obtained from gypsum, hematite, and goethite, respectively. Some pigments were prepared by mixing these materials. The analytical techniques used also allowed the mortar material to be identified. The results of this study may be useful to develop effective conservation strategies for archaeological remains.

XRF and UV-Vis-NIR analyses of medieval wall paintings of al-Qarawiyyin Mosque (Morocco)

Medieval wall painting fragments, taken at the medieval Mosque of al-Qarawiyyin in Fez, have been investigated by means of X-ray fluorescence and UV-Vis-NIR diffuse reflectance spectroscopies. The analyses permitted to determine the palette of pigments used by craftsmen of the time. Hematite or red ochre were used to obtain red brown colours, calcite for white, copper-based pigments for blue and blue-grey shades while a mixture of cinnabar, lead-based pigments and hematite was adopted to make red-orange colours. Furthermore, the analysis of mortars (external layer and plaster) on these wall painting samples revealed that they are composed mainly by calcite and sometimes by additional compounds such as quartz and gypsum.

Use of Raman microspectroscopy to characterize wallpaintings in Cerro de las Cabezas and the Roman villa of Priego de Cordoba (Spain)

The analysis by Raman microscopy of several wallpainting fragments found at an archaeological site in Fuente Tojar and in the Roman villa of Priego de Cordoba, both in southern Spain, revealed that the most abundant colours in them were obtained from the usual pigments of the time. Thus, red corresponded to red ochre, which consisted of hematite mainly. Also, yellow came from yellow ochre (goethite), blue from Egyptian blue, and grey hues were obtained from mixtures of coal and calcite occasionally also containing gypsum. The components of some pigments were confirmed by X-ray diffraction spectroscopy. The two spectroscopic techniques were additionally used to examine the mortars and the preparatory layer present in the fragments.

Non-Destructive Multi-Analytical Approach to Study the Pigments of Wall Painting Fragments Reused in Mortars from the Archaeological Site of Pompeii (Italy)

During the excavations carried out in Via di Mercurio (Regio VI, 9, 3) in Pompeii, in 2015, some red, green, black, and brown wall painting fragments were found in the preparatory layer of an ancient pavement which was probably built after the 62 AD earthquake. These fragments, derived from the rubble, were used as coarse aggregate to prepare the mortar for building the pavement. The wall painting fragments are exceptionally well preserved, which is an uncommon occurrence in the city of Pompeii. However, as they were enclosed in the mortar, the wall painting fragments were protected from the high temperatures (probably ranging between 180 °C and 380 °C) produced by the eruption in 79 AD. The pigmented outer surface of each sample was analyzed using a non-destructive multi-analytical approach, by combining spectrophotometric colorimetry and portable X-ray fluorescence with micro-Raman spectroscopy. The compositional characterization of the samples revealed the presence of cuprorivaite, goethite, and celadonite in the green pigments; hematite in the red pigments; goethite in the brown pigment; and charcoal in the black pigment. These data probably provide us with the most “faithful picture” of the various red, green, black, and brown pigments used in Pompeii prior to the 79 AD eruption.