Waipaoa River Research Articles

Facies-neoichnological variability and sedimentation rates of modern continental shelves

Current ichnofacies models for shelf environments are largely based on analysis of ancient sedimentary deposits and have rarely been applied to studies of modern siliciclastic shelves. Siliciclastic shelf margins are key components of source rocks and unconventional shale plays that can be used as modern analogs to ancient systems. This paper examines the sedimentology and ichnology of shelf margin cores of the Mississippi River Delta containing strata formed during the 2004 (Ivan) and 2005 (Katrina and Rita) hurricane events in the Gulf of Mexico, together with those from the Kikori-Fly-Purari rivers in the Gulf of Papua, New Guinea and the Tūranganui-a-Kiwa/Poverty Bay shelf deposits of the Waipaoa River basin, offshore New Zealand. The cores provide examples of modern-day traces created by marine organisms on muddy shelves and are used to evaluate ichnological models that have been applied to determine sedimentation rates and depositional processes in ancient settings.In total, six facies were recognised based on lithology and ichnological characteristics: (1) laminated very fine sand, produced by waxing and waning currents, displaying scarce to moderate bioturbation; (2) laminated silty mud, formed by waxing and waning currents, exhibiting scarce, very low to moderate bioturbation; (3) normally graded sand and silt, created by suspension settling following a wave-enhanced sediment-gravity flow (WESGF), which reveals low to moderate bioturbation; (4) fluid mudflow/suspension settling deposits, characterised by structureless mud with low to high bioturbation; (5) biogenically mottled silty mud deposited by suspension settling which show high bioturbation intensity; and, (6) storm-generated facies of laminated sand formed by rapid sediment accumulation on the shelf.The different study areas show remarkably similar traces with variable intensity, diversity, abundance and distribution. The Mississippi River Delta cores are typified by Helminthopsis, Chondrites, Schaubcylindrichnus, Skolithos, Siphonichnus, navichnia, fugichnia and abundant bivalve shells. The deposits from the Gulf of Papua consist of Phycosiphon, Chondrites, Schaubcylindrichnus, Skolithos, Helminthopsis, Arenicolites, worm-like traces and abundant bivalve shell fragments. In addition to the traces and bivalves, Tūranganui-a-Kiwa/Poverty Bay shelf includes Asterosoma, Thalassinoides and gastropods. These traces are consistent with the newly defined Phycosiphon Ichnofacies (MacEachern and Bann, 2020), which characterise muddy prodelta settings. This research demonstrates that the neoichnology of modern shelf sediments match models developed from studies of ancient systems, and provides a robust tool for analysing and interpreting ancient shelf strata.

Slip slidin' away: A post-glacial environmental history of the Waipaoa River basin

The dramatic changes that occurred to the post-glacial landscape in the headwaters of the Waipaoa River basin are a consequence of perturbations about the equilibrium that exists between the rate of tectonic uplift and fluvial incision. At times when the amount of coarse sediment delivered to channels exceeds the capacity of streams to remove it, the channel bed rises at the rate of tectonic uplift. Once bedload overcapacity is replaced by undercapacity and the alluvial cover is depleted, streams reestablish contact with bedrock and recuperate the time lost to fluvial incision. The first major perturbation occurred during the final phase of the last glaciation (ca. 33–17.5cal.ka), when aggradation was driven by a climate-forced variation in the relative supplies of sediment and water. We suggest that the subsequent transformation of channels in the headwaters of the Waipaoa River basin, from alluvial to bedrock, occurred as the atmospheric and oceanic circulation converged on their contemporary patterns ca. 12cal.ka. A second major perturbation that continues to the present began ca. 1910–1912CE, when a massive increase in sediment load was accompanied by a modest increase in water discharge after the native vegetation cover in the headwaters was replaced by pasture. The processes of terrace creation and incision are inherently unsteady, and in five interim cases incision was arrested by a transient increase in the thickness of the alluvial cover that was a response to climatic forcing. Events that disrupted the native vegetation cover in the headwaters also modulated patterns of sediment dispersal and accumulation in other parts of the fluvial system and caused rapid, storm-driven infilling of the Poverty Bay Flats. Tectonic subsidence dictates the course of the Waipaoa River across Poverty Bay Flats which, because the modern rate of floodplain construction by vertical accretion is rapid relative to the amount of destruction by lateral channel migration, has remained virtually unchanged for the past 100 years. During this time the channel assumed a narrower, deeper form that is in equilibrium with the contemporary supply of sediment and hydraulic regime.

Influence of anthropogenic land‐use change on hillslope erosion in the Waipaoa River Basin, New Zealand

AbstractEuropean settlement of the Poverty Bay Region resulted in deforestation and conversion of > 90% of the landscape to pastureland. The resulting loss of vegetation triggered a rapid increase in hillslope erosion as widespread landslide complexes and gully systems developed on weak lithologic units in the Waipaoa Basin. To quantify the rate and volume of historic hillslope degradation, we used a 1956–2010 sequence of aerial photographs for a ~16 km2 catchment to map temporal changes in the spatial extent of active landslides. Then we created a ‘turf index’ based on the extent and style of pastoral ground disruption, which correlates with downslope velocity. Based on the movement of trees and other features, we assigned average velocities to the turf classes as follows: (1) minimal disrupted ground: 0.6 m/yr, (2) a mix of disrupted ground and intact blocks: 3.4 m/yr, and (3) no intact blocks or vegetation: > 6 m/yr. We then calculated the average annual sediment flux using these turf‐derived velocities, the width of the landslide‐channel intersection, and an average toe depth of 4.4 ± 1.3 m (mean ± standard deviation [SD]) from 37 field measurements. The resulting catchment averaged erosion rates are (mean ± SD): 29.9 ± 12.9 mm/yr (1956), 28.8 ± 13.7 mm/yr (1969), 13.4 ± 4.9 mm/yr (1979), 17.0 ± 6.2 mm/yr (1988), and 9.9 ± 3.6 mm/yr (2010). Compared with long‐term (post‐18 ka) erosion rates (1.6 mm/yr) and the long‐term uplift rate (~1 mm/yr) for this site, the 50‐year anthropogenically‐driven rate is an order of magnitude larger (~20 mm/yr). Previously, we measured an increase in erosion over the past 3.4 kyr (2.2 mm/yr), and here, we demonstrate this increase could be primarily due to human land‐use change – showing that a century of rapid erosion superimposed on the background geologic rate can profoundly skew the interpretation of erosion rates. Copyright © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

In situ observations of wave‐supported fluid‐mud generation and deposition on an active continental margin

AbstractWave‐supported fluid muds (WSFM) are a type of gravity flow that can rapidly transport sediment across continental margins. They occur when wave‐induced bed stress maintains suspended‐sediment concentrations (SSC) >10 g L−1, and sediment‐induced stratification near the top of the wave boundary layer limits upward diffusion of sediment. Observations from near‐bed instrumentation are used to evaluate the conditions under which WSFMs form on the continental shelf offshore of the Waipaoa River, NZ. An event in July 2010 featured >130 h of energetic ocean conditions, and water discharge >1900 m3 s−1. A calibrated acoustic backscatter sensor at the midshelf measured near‐bed SSC >50 g L−1, with a strong lutocline occurring >15 cm above the predicted wave‐current boundary layer, resulting in ~5 cm deposition. A velocity anomaly occurred during this time, with offshore‐directed currents faster at 1 m above bed (mab) than at 3.5 mab. Using these observations, we empirically solve a simple buoyancy‐drag force balance to estimate the gravity‐driven velocity of the WSFM, which is always <0.03 m s−1. Extending the force balance across a shelf transect suggests that WSFM‐carried sediment can reach the shelf edge in 50–240 h. Spatial and temporal patterns of deposition predicted by the gradient of modeled sediment flux correlate well with seabed observations on the Waipaoa shelf reported in Walsh et al. (2014). This study highlights the importance of WSFMs for cross‐shelf sediment transport, despite relatively slow gravity‐driven velocities and the infrequency with which they occur.

Event-to-seasonal sediment dispersal on the Waipaoa River Shelf, New Zealand: A numerical modeling study

The formation of the geologic record offshore of small mountainous rivers is event-driven and, more so than many other environments, can result in relatively complete sequences. One such river, the Waipaoa in New Zealand, has been studied from its terrestrial source to its oceanic sink over timescales spanning storms, seasons, and the Holocene. This study focused on the formation of riverine deposits on the Waipaoa Shelf during episodic flood and wave events, contrasting deposition during short-lived events to accumulation patterns created over thirteen months. Sediment fluxes and fate were estimated using the numerical hydrodynamic and sediment transport model ROMS, the Regional Ocean Modeling System, using CSTMS, the Community Sediment Transport Modeling System. During the study period (January 2010–February 2011), the model indicated that initial flood deposition generally occurred near the river mouth and along the coast in water shallower than 40m, and that deposition during any one event was sensitive to variations in shelf currents and wave energy. Also, the sedimentation due to plume settling and suspended transport during these relatively short flood and wave events were not aligned with longer time-scale accumulation patterns (months or greater) previously reported for the Waipaoa shelf. In the days to months following a flood pulse, waves episodically reworked this initial deposit, resuspending centimeter-scale layers of sediment during energetic periods. Frequent and intense resuspension occurred in shallow areas where bed stresses were high. This encouraged redistribution of material toward deeper areas having lower near-bed wave stresses, including continental shelf depocenters and offshore areas. While fast settling material was preferentially retained near the river mouth, currents dispersed slower settling sediment farther before deposition. Overall, accumulation depended on characteristics of oceanographic transport (wave energy, current velocities), not just source characteristics (flood size, sediment size distribution).

Quantifying temporal variations in landslide‐driven sediment production by reconstructing paleolandscapes using tephrochronology and lidar: Waipaoa River, New Zealand

AbstractHillslope response to climate‐driven fluvial incision controls sediment export and relief generation in most mountainous settings. Following the shift to a warmer, wetter climate after the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM) (∼18 ka), the Waipaoa River (New Zealand) rapidly incised up to 120 meters, leaving perched, low‐relief hillslopes unadjusted to that base level fall. In the Mangataikapua—a 16.5 km2 tributary principally composed of weak mélange—pervasive post‐LGM landslides responded to >50 m of fluvial incision by sculpting and denuding >99% of the catchment. By reconstructing LGM and younger paleosurfaces from tephra identified by electron microprobe analysis (EMPA) and lidar‐derived surface roughness, we estimate the volume, timing, and distribution of hillslope destabilization in the Mangataikapua and the relative contribution of landslide‐prone terrain to post‐LGM landscape evolution. We calculate volume change between four paleosurfaces constrained by tephra age (Rerewhakaaitu, 17.5 ka; Rotoma, 9.4 ka; Whakatane, 5.5 ka; and Waimihia, 3.4 ka). From the paleosurface reconstructions, we calculate the total post‐LGM hillslope sediment contribution from the Mangataikapua catchment to be 0.5 ± 0.06 (s.d.) km3, which equates to a subcatchment averaged erosion rate of ∼1.6 mm yr−1. This is double the previous hillslope volume when normalized by study area, demonstrating that landslide‐prone catchments disproportionately contribute to the terrestrial post‐LGM sediment budget. Finally, we observe particularly rapid post‐Waimihia erosion rates, likely impacted by human settlement.

Erosion process contribution to sediment yield before and after the establishment of exotic forest: Waipaoa catchment, New Zealand

The East Coast region of the North Island, New Zealand, is well known for its severe erosion, high sediment yields, flooding, and sedimentation following extensive deforestation of its indigenous forest during the late 19th and early 20th centuries. For six decades thereafter, extensive grazing (cattle and sheep) left a legacy of highly degraded hill country, much of which has since been retired and planted in exotic forest, primarily to control erosion. Previous studies have documented the extent of gully erosion, calculated erosion rates and sediment delivery from gullies to the channel load within the study basin, but this has not been quantified for the more extensive mass movement processes including slump, earthflow, and shallow landslides. Additionally, the magnitude of the effect of reforestation on sediment load at subcatchment level and, ultimately on sediment yield at catchment scale, for this combination of erosion processes and, over the time frame of a rotation of exotic forest (~28years), is unknown.For a 140-km2 study basin located in the headwaters of the 2150km2 Waipaoa River catchment, we establish the contribution to basin sediment load by each of these erosion processes, spanning a ~50-year period that includes a ~28-year reforestation effort. We quantified the effectiveness of exotic reforestation as an erosion control strategy by using the mapped extent of each of the erosion processes before planting (i.e. 1939–59), as the benchmark against which any subsequent change in eroded area (km2) was measured. Based on this, process-based erosion load was calculated for the pre-planting period (1939–59), for the period 10years after planting commenced (1960–69), and again for the period 1970–88, which marked the completion of planting within the study basin. The study basin sediment load is then expressed as a proportion (percentage) of the measured sediment yield (Mty−1) of the wider Waipaoa River catchment. The net area affected by erosion, and erosion rates within the study basin peaked at ~10% (all processes combined) and ~28000±4000tkm−2y−1, respectively, during the early planting period (45% of study basin planted). At this time, gullies contributed ~59% of the total sediment load at a rate of 2.3±0.3Mty−1, slumps ~34% (1.3±0.2Mty−1), shallow riparian landslides ~6% (0.2±0.03Mty−1) and earthflows >1% (0.05±0.08Mty−1). Although reforestation proved effective in stabilising shallow landslides and earthflows the resultant reduction in their contribution to basin sediment load and to overall catchment yield was minimal. The greatest reduction in sediment load occurred during the latter part of the reforestation period (1970–88) as the numerous small- to medium-sized gullies stabilised, coincident with canopy closure ~8–10years after planting. However, the larger gully-mass movement complexes failed to stabilise in response to reforestation and they remained the dominant source of sediment, contributing an order of magnitude more than slumps, and two orders of magnitude more than shallow landslides and earthflows. Basin-scale erosion and denudation rates (all processes combined but dominated by gullies) for the pre-reforestation period averaged ~22000±3000tkm−2y−1 (~11mm y−1), peaked during the early reforestation period at ~28 000±4000tkm−2y−1 (~14mm y−1) then decreased to ~13500±2000tkm−2y−1 (~7mmy−1) in response to reforestation and, averaged ~20000±3000tkm−2y−1 (~10mmy−1) for the duration of the study period. Significantly, the anthropogenic influence following European settlement of the study basin produced degradation rates an order of magnitude greater than the ~1mmy−1 estimated for the ~17.6cal. ka BP post-Last Glacial Maximum period. Retirement of the most severely eroding hill country and subsequent establishment of an exotic forest covering ~6% of the Waipaoa catchment area effected an overall ~62% reduction in the erosion-affected area and a ~51% reduction in the denudation and erosion rates, potentially equivalent to an estimated ~12% reduction in sediment yield of the Waipaoa River.We conclude that a greater or similar level of success could be achieved within three decades of forest establishment elsewhere in the East Coast region by specifically targeting gully-mass movement complexes—particularly in high sediment-yielding river systems such as the Waiapu Catchment.

Hillslope response to climate-modulated river incision in the Waipaoa catchment, East Coast North Island, New Zealand

Quantifying how hillslopes respond to river incision and climate change is fundamental to understanding the evolution of uplifting landscapes during glacial-interglacial cycles. We investigated the interplay among uplift, river incision, and hillslope response in the nonglacial Waipaoa River catchment located in the exhumed inner forearc of an active subduction margin on the East Coast of the North Island of New Zealand. New high-resolution topographic data sets (light detection and ranging [lidar] and photogrammetry) combined with field mapping and tephrochronology indicate that hillslopes adjusted to rapid latest Pleistocene and Holocene river incision through the initiation and reactivation of deep-seated landslides. In the erodible marine sedimentary rocks of the Waipaoa sedimentary system, postincision deep-seated landslides can occupy over 30% of the surface area. The ages of tephra cover beds identified by electron microprobe analysis on 80 tephra samples from 173 soil test pits and 64 soil auger sites show that 4000–5000 yr after the initiation of river incision, widespread hillslope adjustment started between the deposition of the ca. 14,000 cal. yr B.P. Waiohau Tephra and the ca. 9420 cal. yr B.P. Rotoma Tephra. Tephrochronology and geomorphic mapping analysis indicate that river incision and deep-seated landslide slope adjustment were synchronous between main-stem rivers and headwater tributaries. Hillslope response in the catchment can include the entire slope, measured from river to ridgeline, and, in some cases, the interfluves between incising subcatchments have been dramatically modified through ridgeline retreat and/or lowering. Using the results of our landform tephrochronology and geomorphic mapping, we derive a conceptual time series of hillslope response to uplift and climate change–induced river incision over the last glacial-interglacial cycle.

Spatial and temporal variability in sediment deposition and seabed character on the Waipaoa River margin, New Zealand

The stratigraphic record is the manifestation of a wide range of processes, interactions and responses to environmental drivers. Understanding the functioning of river sediment dispersal systems is necessary to determine the fate of sediment and associated material in the marine environment and differentiate key influences in the development of the stratigraphic record. To that end, this study uses sediment cores collected on four successive cruises (January, May and September 2010 and February 2011) on the Waipaoa River margin, New Zealand, to provide insight into spatial and temporal variability in sediment deposition and seabed character.The Waipaoa River discharges a large sediment load into an energetic coast that has a complex margin morphology. Several flood and wave events occurred during the study, and sedimentation varied spatially and temporally. X-radiographs and short-lived radioisotopes indicate emplacement of new event layers prior to all cruises. Notable variation in surficial seabed character (grain-size composition, loss-on-ignition percentage) was apparent on the inner shelf (water depths <40m), but mid-shelf areas and seaward had more homogeneous sediment properties. 7Be inventories indicate variable patterns of deposition related to fluvial and oceanographic conditions prior to cruises. Ephemeral sediment storage occurs on the inner-shelf of Poverty Bay, into which the Waipaoa River discharges directly, and subsequent export and dispersal patterns are linked to the relative timing and size of flood and wave events. Surficial deposits with characteristics of fluid muds and wave-enhanced sediment gravity flows were noted at some (<25 sites total) mid-shelf and shallower sites from all cruises. During the last cruise considerable inter- and intra-site seabed variability occurred in the interbedded river-proximal inner-shelf deposits over spatial scales of less than a few kilometers. Evidence from earlier sidescan data infer that this could be related to variation in bedform development or influence. Contrasts in the observed event layering recorded over the experiment with the longer pattern of accumulation suggests stochastic dispersal behavior and reworking over time must shape the seabed to produce the time-averaged pattern of shelf sediment accumulation. This research highlights our improved ability to comprehend strata development and sheds light on the challenge of interpreting historical and ancient strata across spatial and temporal scales.

Characterization of a flood-associated deposit on the Waipaoa River shelf using radioisotopes and terrigenous organic matter abundance and composition

An ephemeral oceanic-flood deposit adjacent to a well-studied small mountainous river (SMR), the Waipaoa River in northeastern New Zealand, was characterized using multiple proxies, including radioisotopes (234Th, 7Be, and 210Pb), bulk organic carbon abundance and isotopic signature (%OC, δ13C), as well as a biomarker of terrigenous organic matter (lignin). Field sampling was conducted within two weeks after a 1-in-8 year flood that occurred between January 30 and February 6, 2010. Geochemical analyses indicated that initial deposition of fresh riverine material extended alongshore to the north and south from the river mouth. A comparison of prior- and post-flood 7Be inventories revealed that flood sediments were widely dispersed between 20 and 70m water depth, accounting for 50–80% of the estimated flood load. Surface (0–2cm) isotopic carbon values increased with distance from Poverty Bay, positively correlating with total 210Pb activities, potentially reflecting increasing marine influence with water depth. Abundances of sedimentary organic carbon (OC) were 0.18–0.76% dry weight, and the total nitrogen varied from 0.02 to 0.13%. Stable isotope signatures of carbon (δ13COC), nitrogen (δ15N), and lignin abundances (λ6) throughout the study area ranged from −23.6 to −27.7‰, 1.9 to 5.3‰, and 0.93 to 9.0mg 100mg OC−1, respectively. The spatial distribution pattern of terrigenous organic matter (OM) abundance and interclass ratios (indicative of freshness of organic matter) varied along and across-shelf. Lignin abundances were high and interclass ratios were low in the southern depocenter and inner shelf areas, suggesting that this zone had recently received vascular-plant enriched OM, minimally altered by shelf-bed mixing processes. In contrast, sediments in the northern depocenter and outer shelf also contained elevated amounts of terrigenous sedimentary OM, but this material was generally lower in lignin abundance and had higher interclass ratios (greater degradation). Collectively, these results suggest that the flood-derived sediment and fresh terrigenous OM were mostly constrained between 20 and 70m water depth, with enhanced deposition overlapping the tectonic-controlled depocenters located to the northeast and southeast of Poverty Bay.

A Hydrodynamic and Sediment Transport Model for the Waipaoa Shelf, New Zealand: Sensitivity of Fluxes to Spatially-Varying Erodibility and Model Nesting

Numerical models can complement observations in investigations of marine sediment transport and depositional processes. A coupled hydrodynamic and sediment transport model was implemented for the Waipaoa River continental shelf offshore of the North Island of New Zealand, to complement a 13-month field campaign that collected seabed and hydrodynamic measurements. This paper described the formulations used within the model, and analyzed the sensitivity of sediment flux estimates to model nesting and seabed erodibility. Calculations were based on the Regional Ocean Modeling System—Community Sediment Transport Modeling System (ROMS-CSTMS), a primitive equation model using a finite difference solution to the equations for momentum and water mass conservation, and transport of salinity, temperature, and multiple classes of suspended sediment. The three-dimensional model resolved the complex bathymetry, bottom boundary layer, and river plume that impact sediment dispersal on this shelf, and accounted for processes including fluvial input, winds, waves, tides, and sediment resuspension. Nesting within a larger-scale, lower resolution hydrodynamic model stabilized model behavior during river floods and allowed large-scale shelf currents to impact sediment dispersal. To better represent observations showing that sediment erodibility decreased away from the river mouth, the seabed erosion rate parameter was reduced with water depth. This allowed the model to account for the observed spatial pattern of erodibility, though the model held the critical shear stress for erosion constant. Although the model neglected consolidation and swelling processes, use of a spatially-varying erodibility parameter significantly increased export of fluvial sediment from Poverty Bay to deeper areas of the shelf.

Post-Last Glacial Maximum fluvial incision and sediment generation in the unglaciated Waipaoa catchment, North Island, New Zealand

Small river systems contribute a significant component of sediment delivered to oceans, but the temporal evolution of fluvially eroded landscapes is needed. A sequence of postglacial terraces in the unglaciated Waipaoa River catchment provides the opportunity to document fluvial incision and sediment flux on an ~2000-year timescale since the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM), which has previously only been undertaken for the entire post-LGM period. This study also calculates sediment mass, where previously sediment volume was calculated. Using a 15-m DEM, field mapping and surveying, and tephrochronology, we calculate rates of fluvial incision and sediment volumes excavated during successive age-constrained, postglacial, incision events and correlate these with a framework of inferred climatic events established for New Zealand. We identify seven periods of terrace formation each succeeded by a period of fluvial incision, six in total. Although the magnitude of the response during each incision event and thus the sediment volumes generated varied through time and across subcatchments draining two contrasting lithological terrains, we conclude that incision events were essentially synchronous, at least within the timeframe constrained by the ca. 2000year interval between successive eruptive airfall events. Slope relaxation processes were simultaneous with incision thereby indicating that both processes were likely climate driven. We identify a period of accelerated fluvial incision ~7mmy−1 commencing before ca. 14.0cal. ka BP (during the early postglacial period) and ceasing ca. 7.9cal. ka BP toward the end of the Early Holocene Warming period. The magnitude of this incision response was significantly higher in subcatchments draining highly erodible lithologies in the higher uplifting parts of the catchment when river bedload was at over capacity. In contrast, within the remainder of subcatchments draining the more resistant lithologies and in areas of lower uplift (and in parts subsiding), incision and sediment generation was moderated by the presence of knickpoints. Overall, since abandonment of the LGM to present day, fluvial incision in the Waipaoa and the adjacent Waimata catchments generated ~16.7km3 of sediment of which ~10km3 (~90% of the estimated 35Mt of glacial–postglacial slope and shelf sediment mass) was potentially available for transport offshore. Of this, 14.08km3 (7.4km3 derived from ‘upper’ and 6.7km3 from ‘remainder’ of subcatchments) was excavated from Waipaoa catchment at an average of ~0.6km3ka−1 of which ~80% was generated by ca. 7.9cal. ka BP. This potentially validates previous accounts of high rates of offshore sediment flux before 8000 14C YBP (ca. 8877cal. YBP). Thereafter, for the period mid-Holocene cooling and variability (MHCV) (ca. 6.5cal. ka BP) until the present day, the rate of incision across all subcatchments slowed to ~2mmy−1 and generated just ~20% of the total sediment volume. In part, this reflected a depletion of available sediment as rivers in the upper subcatchments returned to a steady state and, coincidental with an increase in accommodation space in the rapidly growing coastal floodplain, sediment flux to the marine depocentres was thereby limited.

Sediment transport and event deposition on the Waipaoa River Shelf, New Zealand

A one-year study examining water-column and near-bed time-series observations from benthic-boundary-layer tripods was undertaken in the Waipaoa Sedimentary System (WSS) on the Poverty Bay continental shelf, offshore of the Raukumara Ranges, New Zealand. Here, the nature of the adjacent post-glacial shelf deposits, fed by the Waipaoa River, and century-scale sediment accumulation is well established, but event-scale sediment dispersal and hydrodynamics had not been measured. Data from two tripods outfitted with acoustic and optical instrumentation, and x-radiograph images of seabed cores collected at 4-month intervals, were analyzed to quantify progressive sedimentological changes, and to document processes responsible for seabed strata formation, destruction, and preservation. At the Northern Tripod (NT) mid-shelf location 15km southeast of the river mouth, we observed increases in near-bed suspended sediment concentration when shear velocities exceeded 0.03ms−1 on 33 occasions over an 11.5-month period. Of these events, 9 were depositional, 10 were erosional, and 14 had no bed-elevation change at the 1-cm resolution of our instrumentation. Relatively high (2–5m) and short-period (<11–12s) waves, combined with current velocities <0.15ms−1, led to deposition on the seabed. Smaller-height (2–3m) and longer-period (11–13s) waves with stronger current velocities (>0.15ms−1) typically induced erosion. Despite the short reach of this mountainous riverine dispersal system, we observed a consistent delay between river discharge and apparent deposition on the mid-shelf at the NT location. Following the three largest floods, ~120h of strong, wave-driven bed shear stress preceded measurable deposition on the mid-shelf, suggesting that event duration and intensity are key for transporting material offshore from Poverty Bay. The largest flux event recorded over the study year was a 130-hour-long storm and associated river flood that resulted in near contemporaneous deposition at the NT site. Suspended-sediment concentration data suggest transport by a wave-supported fluid mud. X-radiographs from the NT location corroborate the instrumental record of 5cm deposition, but only the two largest depositional events were preserved in the strata. On the southern shelf we observed no evidence of deposition in either the instrumental data or in the x-radiographs of cores. This study suggests that event duration, and spatial and inter-annual variability are critical considerations when evaluating along- and across-shelf sediment transport and seabed stratigraphic evolution associated with discharge from small mountainous rivers.

Signals of watershed change preserved in organic carbon buried on the continental margin seaward of the Waipaoa River, New Zealand

Abstract Holocene sediments buried on the continental shelf seaward of the Waipaoa River, northeastern New Zealand, preserve a stratigraphic record of terrestrial environmental change. The well characterized, long-term record of storms, volcanism, and human disturbance in this region provides an opportunity to examine how such changes are reflected in the character of organic carbon (OC) buried on the continental margin. Complimentary evidence obtained from analyses of the 14 C content and the elemental and stable carbon isotopic composition of different sedimentary fractions, including charcoal, wood, and clay-sized isolates, indicates that these perturbations led to mobilization of OC components with variable storage histories in the watershed. Charcoal transported in the modern Waipaoa River and buried in offshore depocenters includes a highly aged component that has apparently been slowly released from storage in soil or alluvial terraces. The charcoal fraction ages become dramatically younger in sediments deposited after the Taupo volcanic eruption (1717 cal yr BP) and then Polynesian settlement (ca. 700 cal yr BP), both signaling biomass burning. The mean age of woody plant fragments and clay-bound OC deposited on the shelf also varies over time, with older material having accumulated in the middle Holocene and since human occupation. Deposition of older-than-average wood fragments and clay-bound OC between about 5 and 3.6 kyr BP correlates with evidence for a period of increased storm frequency in the region and may reflect the enhanced delivery of aged soil and sedimentary rock mobilized from hill slopes via earthflows and/or deep seated landslides. Similarly, the deposition of older wood and clay-bound OC commensurate with the first anthropogenic disturbance ca. 700 years ago is consistent with accelerated mass wasting due to deforestation. At the same time, a change in the elemental and stable isotopic composition of bulk and clay-bound OC buried on the shelf may reflect increased marine primary productivity and/or mobilization of OC from deep levels in soil profiles. Deforestation of the Waipaoa headwaters by European settlers beginning in the middle 19th century is evinced by a sharper rise in the age of clay associated OC buried offshore. Today, deep gully incision into fractured sedimentary bedrock is a major source of sediment and kerogen to the river, and this process has left its mark on the age of sedimentary OC delivered to the adjacent margin.

Storm and fair-weather driven sediment-transport within Poverty Bay, New Zealand, evaluated using coupled numerical models

The Waipaoa River Sedimentary System in New Zealand, a focus site of the MARGINS Source-to-Sink program, contains both a terrestrial and marine component. Poverty Bay serves as the interface between the fluvial and oceanic portions of this dispersal system. This study used a three-dimensional hydrodynamic and sediment-transport numerical model, the Regional Ocean Modeling System (ROMS), coupled to the Simulated WAves Nearshore (SWAN) wave model to investigate sediment-transport dynamics within Poverty Bay and the mechanisms by which sediment travels from the Waipaoa River to the continental shelf.Two sets of model calculations were analyzed; the first represented a winter storm season, January–September, 2006; and the second an approximately 40 year recurrence interval storm that occurred on 21–23 October 2005. Model results indicated that hydrodynamics and sediment-transport pathways within Poverty Bay differed during wet storms that included river runoff and locally generated waves, compared to dry storms driven by oceanic swell. During wet storms the model estimated significant deposition within Poverty Bay, although much of the discharged sediment was exported from the Bay during the discharge pulse. Later resuspension events generated by Southern Ocean swell reworked and modified the initial deposit, providing subsequent pulses of sediment from the Bay to the continental shelf. In this manner, transit through Poverty Bay modified the input fluvial signal, so that the sediment characteristics and timing of export to the continental shelf differed from the Waipaoa River discharge. Sensitivity studies showed that feedback mechanisms between sediment-transport, currents, and waves were important within the model calculations.

Distribution of Foraminifera of the Poverty Continental Margin, New Zealand: Implications for Sediment Transport

ABSTRACT Foraminiferal assemblages were used to investigate the nature of sedimentation on the tectonically active Poverty continental margin (PCM) of New Zealand. Recent research around the world has been focused on understanding the sedimentary functioning of small mountainous rivers to the global sediment budget, and this study is part of a greater effort to define the processes that link sediment source and sink of such a system in New Zealand. Fifty-five surface samples from box, gravity, and multi-cores from the shelf and slope of the PCM were used to document the distribution of modern benthic foraminifera. Also, twenty samples from two gravity cores retrieved from Poverty Canyon, a hypothesized conduit of sediment to the deep ocean, were analyzed to evaluate the record of down-slope sediment transport. Seven biofacies, recognized by cluster analysis of benthic foraminiferal abundance data from surface and core samples, are strongly related to water depth and continental margin morphology: inner-shelf biofacies (26–43 m), shelf biofacies (~30–130 m) (this biofacies contained all samples from a canyon-head core taken at 359-m water depth), outer-shelf biofacies (60–250 m), upper-slope biofacies (230–350 m), shallow lower-slope biofacies (870–1255 m), Lachlan Anticline biofacies (40–63 m on the PCM shelf), and a mid-canyon thalweg biofacies from a core taken at 891-m water depth. Foraminiferal assemblages of the Lachlan Anticline biofacies are characterized by the largest foraminifera (mostly inner-and mid-shelf species), the most diverse assemblages, and the highest percentage of reworked planktonic tests in the dataset. Many planktonic and benthic specimens have probably been derived from the outcropping Miocene-Pliocene rock of the anticline. A high percentage of reworked (fossil) planktonic foraminifera at the mouth of Poverty Bay likely results from sediments shed from rapidly uplifting Plio-Pleistocene strata within the Waipaoa River drainage basin. Assemblages throughout the canyon-head (359 m) and mid-canyon (891 m) cores from Poverty Canyon contained higher percentages of shallower-water indicator taxa than other samples at similar depths outside the canyon, thus supporting the hypothesis that Poverty Canyon is channeling sediment from the shelf and upper slope to the deep ocean. However, different patterns of down-core distributions between the canyon head and mid-slope thalweg sites indicate that the nature of sedimentation varies down canyon. Abundances of shallower-water foraminifera suggest that shelf taxa are being supplied from a more consistent source to the canyon head, while shelf and upper-slope taxa are more variably supplied to the deeper-canyon thalweg. The effects of bioturbation appear to be greater in the canyon head.

Provenance of sand on the Poverty Bay shelf, the link between source and sink sectors of the Waipaoa River sedimentary system

The Poverty Shelf, North Island, New Zealand, is a segment of the Waipaoa Sedimentary System (WSS), a MARGINS Source-to-Sink focus site. Our petrographic analysis of sand from shelf core samples indicates that the sand fraction is mainly derived from intra- and potentially extrabasinal sources, but surprisingly, the major fluvial system that drains into Poverty Bay, the Waipaoa River (mean %QFL=xQyFzL), is not the dominant source. Only one vibracore at the mouth of Poverty Bay contained sand (%QFL=xQyFzL) potentially derived from the Waipaoa River. The shelf sand (mean %QFL=xQyFzL) more strongly resembles beach sand (mean %QFL=xQyFzL) collected along the coast, which is likely sourced from pervasive local cliff erosion of Miocene–Pliocene sedimentary units that exhibit similar sandstone detrital modes (mean %QFL=xQyFzL). Texturally, coarser, more poorly sorted and more angular sand is located along the outer shelf, while finer, well-sorted sand characterizes the mid-shelf. These findings suggest a shorter transport history for the material near the outer-shelf bathymetric high areas, and this observation along with the composition data suggests that they were sourced by erosion of locally exposed Miocene–Pliocene units.A potential extrabasinal source of shelf sediment is indicated by anomalous prolate and equant-shaped greywacke (Torlesse) and minor red chert pebbles collected in two outer-shelf box cores on the Lachlan anticline; these are not lithologies found within the terrestrial segment of the WSS or strata comprising the outer-shelf highs. The clast shapes are also distinctly different from the oblate-shaped, pebble-sized greywacke gravel clasts on beaches in Hawke Bay. Rather, these sediments are more similar to Torlesse stream gravel. Seismic and multibeam data support the possibility that during the most recent sea-level lowstand, the Hawke Bay fluvial system flowed into Poverty Canyon, bringing these unique gravels onto what is now the Poverty outer shelf. The presence of the Torlesse gravel is significant in that it highlights how the WSS was not a closed sedimentary system in the past, just as recent sedimentary research has shown in the case today.

The river it goes right on: Post-glacial landscape evolution in the upper Waipaoa River basin, eastern North Island, New Zealand

Post-glacial incision created 50 to 120m of relief in the headwaters of the Waipaoa River basin, but it is not known how the signal of incision propagated along the trunk streams. We addressed this issue by imposing previously determined long-term rates of rock uplift, that vary between 0.6 and 4mmyear−1, on the preaggradation longitudinal profile. Acting over the past 27.1±2cal.kaBP, these rates are sufficient to passively elevate the Waipaoa-1 terrace to its present level. But during the Last Glacial Maximum, rates of vertical incision failed to match those of the uplifting rocks. Thus, by the time favorable conditions for incision were reestablished after the Antarctic Cold/New Zealand Late Glacial reversal we estimate that the channel would have been elevated ≤55m above the datum the river should otherwise have maintained. The channel incised rapidly after the transition from glacial to interglacial conditions and reacquired its steady-state form in the mid-Holocene (5.5±2cal.kaBP). Thereafter, we suggest rates of incision matched rates of uplift. No knickpoints are found on the upper Waipaoa and Mangatu Rivers because incision commenced simultaneously along the entire length of the trunk streams, and the pattern of incision is consistent with the downstream decline in the rate of rock uplift. We also used hypsometric analysis to show how post-glacial incision affected the surface morphology of low order (0.1–4.3km2) drainages in the headwaters of the Waipaoa River basin. Values of the hypsometric integral are higher for proximal basins, which the incision signal did not permeate, than for low-order basins bordering the upper Waipaoa River and the lower reaches of tributaries that possessed enough erosive capacity to keep pace with incision along the mainstem. Hillslope adjustments were focused on the lower and mid-sections of these basins so that the most pronounced changes to the hypsometric curve occur in the vicinity of the toe, whereas the entire form of the hypsometric curve changes once mass wasting processes encroach onto hillslopes in the middle and upper sections of a basin.

Simulating post-LGM riverine fluxes to the coastal zone: The Waipaoa River System, New Zealand

HydroTrend, a climate-driven hydrologic transport model, is used to simulate the suspended sediment discharge of the Waipaoa River System (WRS) over the last 5.5kyr. We constrain the precipitation input with a paleo-rainfall index derived from the high-resolution Lake Tutira storm sediment record. The simulation is extended to 22ka using a lower resolution version of the model, constrained by terrestrial and marine paleoenvironment indicators and a simulated model of northeast New Zealand's climate at the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM). Comparison of the 5.5kyr simulation with the shelf sediment core MD97-2122 suggests that the sediment flux variations observed on the shelf primarily reflect changes in rainfall associated with wetter and drier periods of centuries to millennia duration. Storage of sediment on the Waipaoa River floodplain (Poverty Bay Flats) moderates the signal by reducing the sediment flux reaching the coast. During the LGM conditions were more erosive than the Holocene with tussock and grass dominated vegetation. For erodibility four times the Holocene's and half today's, the LGM Waipaoa River System would have generated approximately half the current sediment yield and about 3 times the amount generated when the catchment was fully forested.

Hydrodynamics and sediment-transport in the nearshore of Poverty Bay, New Zealand: Observations of nearshore sediment segregation and oceanic storms

Nearshore regions act as an interface between the terrestrial environment and deeper waters. As such, they play important roles in the dispersal of fluvial sediment and the transport of sand to and from the shoreline. This study focused on the nearshore of Poverty Bay, New Zealand, and the processes controlling the dispersal of sediment from the main source, the Waipaoa River. Hydrodynamics and sediment-transport in water shallower than 15 m were observed from April through mid-September 2006. This deployment afforded observations during 3–4 periods of elevated river discharge and 5 dry storms. Similar wind, river discharge, wave, current, and turbidity patterns were characterized during three of the wet storms. At the beginning of each event, winds blew shoreward, increasing wave heights to 2–3 m within Poverty Bay. As the cyclonic storms moved through the system the winds reversed direction and became seaward, reducing the local wave height and orbital velocity while river discharge remained elevated. At these times, high river discharge and relatively small waves enabled fluvially derived suspended sediment to deposit in shallow water. Altimetry measurements indicated that at least 7 cm was deposited at a 15 m deep site during a single discharge event. Turbidity and seabed observations showed this deposition to be removed, however, as large swell waves from the Southern Ocean triggered resuspension of the material within three weeks of deposition. Consequently, two periods of dispersal were associated with each discharge pulse, one coinciding with fluvial delivery, and a second driven by wave resuspension a few weeks later. These observations of nearfield sediment deposition contradict current hypotheses of very limited sediment deposition in shallow water offshore of small mountainous rivers when floods and high-energy, large wave and fast current, oceanic conditions coincide. Consistently shoreward near-bed currents, observed along the 10 m isobath of Poverty Bay, were attributed to a combination of estuarine circulation, Stokes drift, and wind driven upwelling. Velocities measured at the 15 m isobath, however, were directed more alongshore and diverged from those at the 10 m isobath. The divergence in the currents observed at the 10 and 15 m locations seemed to facilitate segregation of coarse and fine sediment, with sand transported near-bed toward the beach, while suspended silts and clays were exported to deeper water.