Voluntary Processes Research Articles

Transcranial Direct-current Stimulation of the Dorsolateral Prefrontal Cortex Modulates Voluntary Task-order Coordination in Dual-task Situations.

Dual tasks (DTs) require additional control processes that temporally coordinate the processing of the two component tasks. Previous studies employing imaging as well as noninvasive stimulation techniques have demonstrated that the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (dlPFC) is causally involved in these task-order coordination processes. However, in these studies, participants were instructed to match their processing order to an externally provided and mandatory order criterion during DT processing. Hence, it is still unknown whether the dlPFC is also recruited for rather voluntary order control processes, which are required in situations that allow for intentional and internally generated order choices. To address this issue, in two experiments, we applied anodal (Experiment 1) and cathodal (Experiment 2) transcranial direct-current stimulation during a random-order DT in which participants could freely decide about their order of task processing. In our results, we found facilitatory and inhibitory effects on voluntary task-order coordination because of anodal and cathodal transcranial direct-current stimulation, respectively. This was indicated by shorter RTs when participants intentionally switched the task order relative to the preceding trial during anodal as well as a reduced tendency to switch the task order relative to the preceding trial during cathodal stimulation compared with the sham stimulation. Overall, these findings indicate that the dlPFC is also causally involved in voluntary task-order coordination processes. In particular, we argue that the dlPFC is recruited for intentionally updating and implementing task-order information that is necessary for scheduling the processing of two temporally overlapping tasks.

Effect of negative emotional stimuli on working memory: Impact of voluntary and automatic attention.

Emotions are known to influence cognitive performance, particularly working memory (WM) in both its aspects, processing, and maintenance. One explanatory mechanism might be that negative stimuli capture attentional resources, leaving fewer resources for attentional maintenance and processing of information in WM. However, this attentional capture was only investigated using WM tasks in which participants were explicitly asked to process negative items. The aim of this paper was to determine whether explicit processing of emotional stimuli is necessary to impair WM performance, or if their mere presence is enough to capture attention. For this purpose, participants performed a complex span task in which they alternated between memorizing a series of neutral words and processing either emotional images or neutral ones. In Experiment 1, participants were instructed to explicitly process emotional images, whereas in Experiment 2, emotional images were presented without any processing being required. In both experiments, we observed a decrease in memory performance when the images were negative compared to neutral. Whether or not voluntary processing is involved, emotional images seem to capture attentional resources, which in turn leads to a decline in memory performance. These results were discussed in relation to attentional theories and the influence of emotion on the specific mechanisms of WM.

Automatic gait evoking in healthy adults through Vojta’s peripheric somatosensory stimulation: a double-blind randomized controlled trial

BackgroundTo study the effects of different interventions on automatic gait processing in contrast with voluntary gait processing in healthy subjects.MethodsA double-blind randomised controlled trial was designed (120 able-body persons between 18 and 65 years old entered and completed the study), with pre-intervention and post-intervention assessments using the 6-Minute Walk Test (6MWT). The participants were randomly distributed into four groups. Prior to intervention, all participants performed voluntary gait on the ground (VoG) in a calibrated circuit following the 6MWT. The presence of automatic gait (AG) was explored post-intervention without a voluntary demand in the same circuit following the 6MWT. Each group received a different intervention for 30 min: Vojta stimulation, MOTOMED® at no less than 60 revolutions/minute, treadmill walking at 3 km/h, and resting in a chair (control). The main assessment, conducted by a blinded rater, was the difference in distance covered (in meters) during the 6MWT between pre- and post-intervention. Surface electromyography (sEMG) average root mean square (RMS) signals in the right tibialis anterior, right soleus, right rectus femoris, and right biceps femoris were also considered outcome measures.ResultsThe Vojta group was the only one that initiated AG after the intervention (476.4 m ± 57.1 in VoG versus 9.0 m ± 8.9 in AG, p < 0.001) with comparable kinematics and EMG parameters during voluntary gait, except for ankle dorsal flexion. Within the Vojta group, high variability in kinematics, sEMG activity, and distance covered was observed.ConclusionsAG isolation is approachable through Vojta at only one session measurable with the 6MWT without any voluntary gait demand. No automatic gait effects were observed post-intervention in the other groups.Trial registrationNCT04689841 (ClinicalTrials.gov).

Threat-induced prosocial behavior: enhanced exogenous attention to protect others from harm

As social animals, humans tend to voluntarily engage in pro-social behavior to prevent harm to others. However, to what extent prosocial behavior can be reflected at the level of less voluntary cognitive processes remains unclear. Here, we examined how threat to others modulates exogenous attention. Fifty-four participants performed an exogenous spatial cueing task where the participant’s performance determined whether electric shocks would be delivered either to themselves or to their anonymous co-participant. Threat of shock to the co-participant elicited orienting and reorienting responses that were faster than in the safe condition and did not differ from performance when participants avoided shocks to themselves. This attentional improvement was not due to speed-accuracy trade off and was associated with arousal, i.e., increased pupil dilation in both threat conditions. Together, these findings suggest that pro-social behavior triggers automatic attentional processes which may be relevant for providing immediate help without relying on reflexive processes.

Reading Reshapes Stimulus Selectivity in the Visual Word Form Area.

Reading depends on a brain region known as the "visual word form area" (VWFA) in the left ventral occipitotemporal cortex. This region's function is debated because its stimulus selectivity is not absolute, it is modulated by a variety of task demands, and it is inconsistently localized. We used fMRI to characterize the combination of sensory and cognitive factors that activate word-responsive regions that we precisely localized in 16 adult humans (4 male). We then presented three types of character strings: English words, pseudowords, and unfamiliar characters with matched visual features. Participants performed three different tasks while viewing those stimuli: detecting real words, detecting color in the characters, and detecting color in the fixation mark. There were three primary findings about the VWFA's response: (1) It preferred letter strings over unfamiliar characters even when the stimuli were ignored during the fixation task. (2) Compared with those baseline responses, engaging in the word reading task enhanced the response to words but suppressed the response to unfamiliar characters. (3) Attending to the stimuli to judge their color had little effect on the response magnitudes. Thus, the VWFA is uniquely modulated by a cognitive signal that is specific to voluntary linguistic processing and is not additive. Functional connectivity analyses revealed that communication between the VWFA and a left frontal language area increased when the participant engaged in the linguistic task. We conclude that the VWFA is inherently selective for familiar orthography, but it falls under control of the language network when the task demands it.

Reading reshapes stimulus selectivity in the visual word form area.

Reading depends on a brain region known as the "visual word form area" (VWFA) in left ventral occipito-temporal cortex. This region's function is debated because its stimulus selectivity is not absolute, it is modulated by a variety of task demands, and it is inconsistently localized. We used fMRI to characterize the combination of sensory and cognitive factors that activate word-responsive regions that we precisely localized in 16 adult humans (4 male). We then presented three types of character strings: English words, pseudowords, and unfamiliar characters with matched visual features. Participants performed three different tasks while viewing those stimuli: detecting real words, detecting color in the characters, and detecting color in the fixation mark. There were three primary findings about the VWFA's response: (1) It preferred letter strings over unfamiliar characters even when the stimuli were ignored during the fixation task; (2) Compared to those baseline responses, engaging in the word reading task enhanced the response to words but suppressed the response to unfamiliar characters. (3) Attending to the stimuli to judge their font color had little effect on the response magnitudes. Thus, the VWFA is uniquely modulated by a cognitive signal that is specific to voluntary linguistic processing and is not additive. Functional connectivity analyses revealed that communication between the VWFA and a left frontal language area increased when the participant engaged in the linguistic task. We conclude that the VWFA is inherently selective for familiar orthography, but it falls under control of the language network when the task demands it.

When do we become more distractible? Progressive evolution of different components of distractibility from early to late adulthood.

Distractibility determines the propensity to have one's attention captured by irrelevant information; it relies on a balance between voluntary and involuntary attention. We report a cross-sectional study that uses the competitive attention test to characterize patterns of attention across the adult life span from 21 to 86 years old. Several distractibility components were measured in 186 participants distributed within seven age groups. Results indicate that distractibility components follow distinct trajectories with aging: Voluntary orienting remains stable from 21 to 86 years old, sustained attention decreases after 30 years old, distraction progressively increases between 26 and 86 years old, and impulsivity is lower in older compared to younger adults. Increased distractibility in older age thus seems to result from a dominance of involuntary over voluntary attention processes, whose detrimental effect on performance is partly compensated by enhanced motor control. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2023 APA, all rights reserved).

AUTONOMOUS LEARNING – A THEORETICAL APPROACH

Autonomy is a pedagogical concept with multiple educational dimensions, the most important correlative notions being involvement, freedom of choice, responsibility, critical thinking, and metacognition. Educational autonomy is a pedagogical concept with multiple educational dimensions, important correlative notions being activation, freedom of choice, responsibility, critical thinking, and metacognition. The common teacher-student actions aim to increase the student's autonomy and include the acquisition of meta-knowledge and the use of meta-cognitive strategies, reflection on knowledge, performing self-evaluations and co-evaluations, combining individual activity with cooperative work activities, and mutual exchanges. The student thus contributes responsibly to his own training, (self) training. The autonomy of the student is objectified in the management of the new knowledge, in setting their own goals and strategies of learning and training, in the hierarchy of priorities, in the design of the strategies of (self) monitoring and self-evaluation, in the curricular management, in the time management. Just like self-education, self-training refers to the conscious, voluntary processes, in which the person undertakes actions aimed, consciously, at qualitative transformations, which lead to the development of his own personality. In self-training, "learning to learn" is essential, understood as the assimilation of cognitive/intellectual and metacognitive skills, contributing to the transformation of self-instruction and self-training into a necessity.

Theta Activity Dynamics during Embedded Response Plan Processing in Tourette Syndrome

Gilles de la Tourette syndrome (GTS) is a neuropsychiatric disorder. Because motor signs are the defining feature of GTS, addressing the neurophysiology of motor processes is central to understanding GTS. The integration of voluntary motor processes is subject to so-called "binding problems", i.e., how different aspects of an action are integrated. This was conceptualized in the theory of event coding, in which 'action files' accomplish the integration of motor features. We examined the functional neuroanatomical architecture of EEG theta band activity related to action file processing in GTS patients and healthy controls. Whereas, in keeping with previous data, behavioral performance during action file processing did not differ between GTS and controls, underlying patterns of neural activity were profoundly different. Superior parietal regions (BA7) were predominantly engaged in healthy controls, but superior frontal regions (BA9, BA10) in GTS indicated that the processing of different motor feature codes was central for action file processing in healthy controls, whereas episodic processing was more relevant in GTS. The data suggests a cascade of cognitive branching in fronto-polar areas followed by episodic processing in superior frontal regions in GTS. Patients with GTS accomplish the integration of motor plans via qualitatively different neurophysiological processes.

The Dissociation-Related Beliefs About Memory Questionnaire (DBMQ): Development and psychometric properties.

Discontinuities in memory are the hallmark symptoms of most dissociative disorders but are also reported by patients diagnosed with related disorders, including PTSD. Memory discontinuity is most evident in dissociative identity disorder (DID), where patients may report amnesia in 1 identity for information available in other identities (i.e., interidentity amnesia). Studies indicate that even though patients subjectively report interidentity amnesia for material learned in, or pertaining to, another identity, objective findings show evidence of transfer of that material between identities. Subjective reports of dissociative amnesia may be explained by specific dissociation-related metamemory beliefs, which hinder voluntary retrieval, personal acknowledgment, and processing of memories. This study aimed to develop a questionnaire indexing metamemory beliefs related to trait dissociation. Two studies in nonclinical populations provided information about the factor structure (Studies 1 and 2) of the newly developed Dissociation-related Beliefs about Memory Questionnaire (DBMQ). Information was also provided about the construct validity (Studies 2 and 3), and reliability of the scale (all 3 studies) in nonclinical as well as a clinical population. Results indicated sound psychometric properties of a short 16-item DBMQ with subscales assessing Fragmentation, Positive beliefs about amnesia, Lack of self-reference, and Fear of losing control, and correlations specifically with trait dissociation and posttraumatic avoidance symptoms. A sample of DID patients (N = 19) showed increased scores on the DBMQ. The DBMQ provides a short, reliable, and valid tool for indexing dissociation-related metamemory beliefs. These beliefs were associated with trait dissociation and posttraumatic avoidance symptoms. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2023 APA, all rights reserved).

What is the contribution of voluntary and reflex processes to sensorimotor control of balance?

The contribution to balance of spinal and transcortical processes including the long-latency reflex is well known. The control of balance has been modelled previously as a continuous, state feedback controller representing, long-latency reflexes. However, the contribution of slower, variable delay processes has not been quantified. Compared with fixed delay processes (spinal, transcortical), we hypothesize that variable delay processes provide the largest contribution to balance and are sensitive to historical context as well as current states. Twenty-two healthy participants used a myoelectric control signal from their leg muscles to maintain balance of their own body while strapped to an actuated, inverted pendulum. We study the myoelectric control signal (u) in relation to the independent disturbance (d) comprising paired, discrete perturbations of varying inter-stimulus-interval (ISI). We fit the closed loop response, u from d, using one linear and two non-linear non-parametric (many parameter) models. Model M1 (ARX) is a generalized, high-order linear-time-invariant (LTI) process with fixed delay. Model M1 is equivalent to any parametric, closed-loop, continuous, linear-time-invariant (LTI), state feedback model. Model M2, a single non-linear process (fixed delay, time-varying amplitude), adds an optimized response amplitude to each stimulus. Model M3, two non-linear processes (one fixed delay, one variable delay, each of time-varying amplitude), add a second process of optimized delay and optimized response amplitude to each stimulus. At short ISI, the myoelectric control signals deviated systematically both from the fixed delay LTI process (M1), and also from the fixed delay, time-varying amplitude process (M2) and not from the two-process model (M3). Analysis of M3 (all fixed delay and variable delay response amplitudes) showed the variable (compared with fixed) delay process 1) made the largest contribution to the response, 2) exhibited refractoriness (increased delay related to short ISI) and 3) was sensitive to stimulus history (stimulus direction 2 relative to stimulus 1). For this whole-body balance task and for these impulsive stimuli, non-linear processes at variable delay are central to control of balance. Compared with fixed delay processes (spinal, transcortical), variable delay processes provided the largest contribution to balance and were sensitive to historical context as well as current states.

Forest owners’ perspectives on forest protection in Norway

ABSTRACT Forest protection in nature reserves in Norway relies on the voluntary participation of forest owners. While the national forest protection program has been a success since its start in early 1990s, by 2020 the national forest protection authorities were only halfway to reaching their goal of protecting 10% all forest area. We examined attitudes towards forest protection in general and towards different protection modes using surveys of forest owners between 2003 and 2010. Our analysis is based on a comprehensive comparison between a random sample of forest owners (n = 647), forest owners who participated in voluntary conservation (n = 126) and forest owners involved in the government-led coniferous forest protection program (n = 142). Only about 10% of forest owners involved in voluntary protection processes are either quite or very unhappy with the process, while 75% of forest owners involved in government-led protection were either quite or very unhappy with the process. Moreover, forest owners who had experience with the voluntary protection program were largely satisfied with the results. We discuss forest owners’ attitudes to forest protection in general, and possible reasons for the differences in attitudes between compulsory protection and voluntary protection. We conclude that voluntary protection has great potential to fulfill the last 5% area goal for forest protection in Norway, with some improvements in the process.

Interleaved Pro/Anti-saccade Behavior Across the Lifespan.

The capacity for inhibitory control is an important cognitive process that undergoes dynamic changes over the course of the lifespan. Robust characterization of this trajectory, considering age continuously and using flexible modeling techniques, is critical to advance our understanding of the neural mechanisms that differ in healthy aging and neurological disease. The interleaved pro/anti-saccade task (IPAST), in which pro- and anti-saccade trials are randomly interleaved within a block, provides a simple and sensitive means of assessing the neural circuitry underlying inhibitory control. We utilized IPAST data collected from a large cross-sectional cohort of normative participants (n = 604, 5–93 years of age), standardized pre-processing protocols, generalized additive modeling, and change point analysis to investigate the effect of age on saccade behavior and identify significant periods of change throughout the lifespan. Maturation of IPAST measures occurred throughout adolescence, while subsequent decline began as early as the mid-20s and continued into old age. Considering pro-saccade correct responses and anti-saccade direction errors made at express (short) and regular (long) latencies was crucial in differentiating developmental and aging processes. We additionally characterized the effect of age on voluntary override time, a novel measure describing the time at which voluntary processes begin to overcome automated processes on anti-saccade trials. Drawing on converging animal neurophysiology, human neuroimaging, and computational modeling literature, we propose potential frontal-parietal and frontal-striatal mechanisms that may mediate the behavioral changes revealed in our analysis. We liken the models presented here to “cognitive growth curves” which have important implications for improved detection of neurological disease states that emerge during vulnerable windows of developing and aging.

Developmental maturation of causal signaling hubs in voluntary control of saccades and their functional controllability.

The ability to adaptively respond to behaviorally relevant cues in the environment, including voluntary control of automatic but inappropriate responses and deployment of a goal-relevant alternative response, undergoes significant maturation from childhood to adulthood. Importantly, the maturation of voluntary control processes influences the developmental trajectories of several key cognitive domains, including executive function and emotion regulation. Understanding the maturation of voluntary control is therefore of fundamental importance, but little is known about the underlying causal functional circuit mechanisms. Here, we use state-space and control-theoretic modeling to investigate the maturation of causal signaling mechanisms underlying voluntary control over saccades. We demonstrate that directed causal interactions in a canonical saccade network undergo significant maturation between childhood and adulthood. Crucially, we show that the frontal eye field (FEF) is an immature causal signaling hub in children during control over saccades. Using control-theoretic analysis, we then demonstrate that the saccade network is less controllable in children and that greater energy is required to drive FEF dynamics in children compared to adults. Our findings provide novel evidence that strengthening of causal signaling hubs and controllability of FEF are key mechanisms underlying age-related improvements in the ability to plan and execute voluntary control over saccades.

The influence of reward history on goal-directed visual search.

The attentional priority of a stimulus is influenced by both its relationship to task goals and reward history. While experiments probing goal-directed visual search typically dictate which stimuli should receive attentional priority by virtue of highly constrained task demands, individuals in real-world scenarios choose what to search for. In such complex and dynamic environments, it is unclear how reward history might influence the strategic control of attention. In the present study, participants completed a modified version of the Adaptive Choice Visual Search (ACVS) task integrated with the value-driven attentional capture design. In a training phase, participants learned to associate one of two possible target colors with monetary reward. In a subsequent test phase, they completed the ACVS task in which a target in both a previously rewarded and unrewarded color was present on each trial and participants could choose how to search. Our results reveal that participants were biased to voluntarily search through the previously reward-associated color regardless of whether the distribution of stimuli made it optimal to do so, which came at a cost in performance when searching through the previously rewarded color was a suboptimal strategy. In the absence of prior reward training, in contrast, search strategy was inconsistent with respect to color. Our findings provide evidence that reward history biases voluntary search processes.

Involuntary and voluntary processes compete for entering focus of attention of working memory

Involuntary and voluntary processes compete for entering focus of attention of working memory

Are gender diverse boards more cautious? The impact of board gender diversity on sentiment in earnings press releases

We examine the impact of board gender diversity on the sentiment in earnings press releases. Managers may use press releases to manage readers’ perceptions of corporate performance and we posit that gender diverse boards actively monitor managerial disclosures and tend to favour more cautious language in the press releases. Using a sample from ASX top 200 company voluntary disclosures and natural language text extraction processes, we find that board gender diversity is associated with the use of more cautious sentiments and less positive sentiments in earnings press releases. Further robustness tests validate our findings. We provide insights to practitioners and regulators by contributing to an ongoing regulatory debate on board gender diversity.

Probing Vietnam's Legal Prospects in the South China Sea Dispute

executive summary: This article reviews dispute settlement procedures under the 1982 United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS), discusses the application in two cases, and draws implications for the actionable legal procedures available to Vietnam. main argument Although most Asian states are signatories to UNCLOS, which offers options for dispute resolution by either voluntary or compulsory processes, in reality fewer than a dozen Asian states have taken advantage of such an approach. The decision to adopt third-party mechanisms comes under great scrutiny and deliberation, not least because of the entailing legal procedures and the politically sensitive nature of disputes. Vietnam claims the second-largest maritime area in the South China Sea dispute after China. A comparison of two recent cases—the arbitration between the Philippines and China and the conciliation between Timor-Leste and Australia—highlights the importance of selecting between binding and nonbinding decisions and framing a complaint. In particular, any legal action under UNCLOS should specify China's claims and actions in areas that encroach on Vietnam's claimed exclusive economic zone (EEZ) and violate international law. policy implications • Were Vietnam to build a case against China in the South China Sea based on maritime entitlements, rather than boundary delimitation, it should initiate a compulsory arbitration procedure pursuant of Article 287 and Annex VII of UNCLOS. In taking this step, Vietnam should seek a ruling regarding (1) entitlements to living and nonliving resources in its EEZ and continental shelf and (2) the legality of China's claims and activities in the South China Sea. • While Vietnam continues to prefer negotiations, the growing assertiveness of China, including its activities in Vietnam's claimed EEZ, may change this calculation. A potential victory in international arbitration could secure Vietnam's sovereignty over its EEZ and continental shelf.

Mindfulness Meditation Leads To Increased Dispositional Mindfulness And Interoceptive Awareness Linked To A Reduced Dissociative Tendency

ABSTRACT Dissociation is an involuntary defensive mechanism to protect oneself by avoiding unbearable internal conflicts or overwhelming emotions. Cultivating mindful awareness could allow the development of voluntary processes that can offer part of the self-protective function of dissociation while favoring internal integration processes. The aim of the present study was to explore the effects of a 7-week Mindfulness Oriented Meditation (MOM) training on healthy individuals’ self-reported dissociative experience, mindfulness skills and interoceptive awareness. After the training, in comparison to a waiting-list control group (N = 102), the MOM group (N = 110) showed reduced dissociative tendencies (p < .05), increased dispositional mindfulness (p < .001) and increased interoceptive awareness (in the aspects of not-worrying, self-regulation and body listening; p < .001). Moreover, correlational evidence showed that the more MOM participants increased in mindfulness skills after the training the more they reported increased interoceptive awareness and decreased dissociative functioning (p < .05). Mindfulness skills also improved with more home meditation practice executed by MOM participants (p < .05). These findings were attributed to a possible role of mindfulness meditation in enabling the development of volitional processes that afford psychological safety and integration, in contrast with the involuntary nature of dissociation.

WHAT’S VOLUNTARY IN STANCE VOLUNTARISM?

Stance voluntarism highlights the role of the will in epistemic agency, claiming that agents can control the epistemic stances they assume in forming beliefs. It claims that radical belief changes are not compelled by the evidence; they are rationally permitted choices about which epistemic stances to adopt. However, terms like “will”, “choice”, and “stance” play a crucial role while being left as vague notions. This paper investigates what kind of control rational agents can have over epistemic stances. I argue that whether epistemic stances are voluntary depends on what kind of stance is being assessed. Sometimes epistemic stances are taken to be evaluative attitudes about how to produce knowledge. This kind of stance is not directly controllable, since it is essentially connected to beliefs, and believing is not voluntary. But sometimes epistemic stances are taken to be styles of reasoning and modes of engagement, expressing ways of approaching the world in order to produce knowledge, which can be voluntary. Overall, this supports a formulation of stance voluntarism as a dual-systems theory of epistemic agency, where epistemic rationality is compounded by a dynamic interplay between involuntary processes of belief formation and voluntary processes of cognitive guidance.