Voluntary Initiatives Research Articles

Corporate engagement in mitigating plastic pollution: examining voluntary initiatives and EU regulations

Plastic pollution has emerged as a critical global environmental challenge, with far-reaching ecological, economic, and social implications. This article addresses the fragmented nature of the current literature on plastic pollution regulations and their impact on the corporate sector and aims to bridge this gap by providing a comprehensive analysis of the current EU regulatory framework and corporate voluntary self-regulatory initiatives relevant to plastic pollution. Examining voluntary initiatives – including corporate social responsibility (CSR) programs and the emerging concept of plastic credits – in terms of their potential to tackle plastic pollution and promote environmental sustainability, the article presents novel insights on how different regulatory mechanisms and voluntary self-regulatory initiatives engage the corporate sector in mitigating plastic pollution. While highlighting the importance of collaborative efforts between regulatory bodies and businesses, the study critically evaluates the challenges and limitations of current approaches. It addresses concerns about the efficacy and transparency of CSR initiatives, with particular attention to the issue of greenwashing and its potential legal implications. By synthesizing diverse sources, this article emphasizes the need to combine stringent regulatory frameworks with responsible business practices to engage the corporate sector in preventing and mitigating plastic pollution, specifically within the context of the European Union’s pioneering environmental policy. Ultimately, the study suggests that the most effective long-term solution lies in reducing plastic production altogether while acknowledging the role of transitional measures in the interim.

Sustainability of plastic waste management through voluntary initiatives – a case study in Indonesia

Sustainability of plastic waste management through voluntary initiatives – a case study in Indonesia

Factor influencing taxpayer compliance on voluntary tax disclosure program initiative: Case of Kenya revenue authority southern region

Tax is the primary source of government revenue, its vital component in running daily government activities. Not collecting enough tax causes the government to strain or stalling of its mandates, therefore its role of every government to mitigate and maximize its tax collection scope. The research sought to investigate the factors influencing taxpayer compliance on voluntary tax disclosure program in Kenya Revenue Authority, case of Southern region. The specific objectives of these research included, to assess the effects of Tax Sanctions on the taxpayer on participation in a voluntary tax disclosure program. To determine the impact of subjective norms of taxpayer participation on the Voluntary tax disclosure program. To evaluate the influence of taxpayer knowledge on participation in a voluntary tax disclosure program. The main challenge that was thematic for investigation, why despite the opportunity to declare asset without punitive punishment, still there is few uptakes for the program. The geographical location of the research was in Southern Region Domestic Taxes department on its six tax office namely; Voi, Mombasa South, Lamu, Malindi, Mombasa North and Diani for the financial year 2023/2024. The study sought to use descriptive approach, where a sample size of 150 was derived from a population of 230 staffs in Compliance Domestic taxes. Data collection was done using online well-structured questionnaire via Kobo-Collect in a random sampling and analyzed using SPSS version 28. To test validity and reliability of the data pilot test was conducted and Cronbach alpha and KMO-test proved data to be reliable and valid. The output of the analysis showed the regression model whose covariates, Tax sanction (t=2.448, P<0.016) subjective norm (t=3.347, P<0.001) and taxpayer Knowledge (t=7.827, P<0.00) were all significant at 95% level. Moreover, the R2 =0.951 which means the exploratory variables explained 95.1% variation of Compliance to the Voluntary tax disclosure. The ANOVA result showed the data was fit to the model was good at (F=942.61, p<0.00). The study concluded indeed, Subjective norms, Tax Sanction and Taxpayer Knowledge influences greatly compliance of Taxpayer towards Voluntary tax disclosure. The research implied that proper use of tax sanction such us fines, penalties, and interest on taxpayers would increase compliance. Also educating taxpayer is essential as the decisions made by some taxpayers depend on the knowledge they have acquired. Also on subjective norms, some behaviors are traceable as some are based on influence of association hence compliance officer need to continuous encourage taxpayer to comply. This research recommends that the authority through the compliance officer, use of subjective norms, Taxpayer knowledge and Tax sanction as a mitigating strategy to mitigate on Voluntary tax disclosure, through this it will increase tax base and revenue mobilization and compliance status of Taxpayers.

Exploring the policy context of Whole School in eight EU countries: the Schools4Health project

Abstract Background Moving from the recognition of WHO principles of health promoting school (HPS) to concrete practices is challenging. The Schools4Health project is an EU initiative with the aim to introduce, strengthen, and sustain the adoption of a participatory whole-school approach to health and wellbeing. The aim of this work is to present an update about the policy environment around HPS approaches in eight EU countries. Methods Between September-November 2023, Schools4Health partners from Spain, Belgium, Hungary, Greece, Latvia, the Netherlands, Romania and Slovenia carried out a preliminary scoping exercise to investigate the policy conditions which can influence the national uptake of HPS approaches. A three-step methodology was developed: a. identification of core stakeholders b. Rapid Situation Analysis survey and c. national roundtable meetings, to assess stakeholders’ awareness of and engagement in health promotion programs in schools. Results In total, n = 192 responses from stakeholders from health, education, social and agricultural sectors were selected. Most experts were aware or partly aware of the HPS concept. While there is consensus that health promotion at school is essential, there is a lack of, or weak implementation of legislation and voluntary initiatives due to barriers such as limited time and financial resources, teachers burnout and insufficient interaction between education and health governmental bodies. Conclusions Effective advocacy can highlight the potential of HPS in addressing the urgent challenges related to wellbeing in youth, and the associated decline in educational performance across Europe. Policymakers, public authorities and the broader community should also be engaged. Key messages • Creating HPSs should not solely fall on schools and teaching staff. • Policymakers, public authorities and the broader community around schools have responsibility to ensure that policy measures and instruments embed the key considerations for HPS approach.

The Urgency of Green Banking Regulations in Indonesia in the Implementation of Sustainable Development

This research highlights significant gaps in Indonesia's green banking regulations, particularly the lack of stringent sanctions and clear enforcement frameworks for sustainable finance principles. While the Financial Services Authority Regulation No. 51/POJK.03/2017 addresses environmental sustainability, it fails to impose effective penalties on banks that contribute to environmental degradation. As a result, green banking in Indonesia remains largely a voluntary initiative due to insufficient regulatory measures. This research employs a normative legal research design, utilizing both conceptual and statutory approaches. It advocates for the implementation of stricter penalties and enhanced oversight to ensure compliance with sustainability standards among financial institutions, thereby facilitating the transition to a green economy. Furthermore, the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) underscore the importance of indicators related to economic, social, and environmental sustainability, which green banking can help achieve. The proposed revised regulatory framework should include stringent sanctions for violations by both banks and customers, ensuring that financial institutions actively contribute to environmental protection.

Examining the effect of forest certification on timber harvest best management practice implementation

ABSTRACT Forest certification programs are voluntary initiatives emphasizing sustainable forestry and harvest practices. Compliance with certification standards is enforced through third-party audits. One requirement of most forest certification systems is the use of best management practices during harvesting activities. These practices are designed to mitigate potential negative outcomes of forest management and timber harvesting activities. Best management practice implementation has been found to have a variety of positive outcomes on water quality and other resources. However, information relating forest certification to implementation of best management practices and environmental outcomes on certified versus noncertified lands is scant. Here, we examine the role of third-party certification as it contributes to enhanced forest stewardship via implementation of voluntary best management practices. Our study adds to the limited body of research comparing sustainability practices and outcomes on certified vs. noncertified lands. In alignment with previous research on the topic, our study suggests that adherence to best management practices is better on certified versus noncertified forests. Our findings also suggest that for large public agency ownerships, organizationally driven factors beyond forest certification (e.g. institutional policy and trained staff) influence the use of best management practices during timber harvests.

30 Years of Responsible Care in the Czech Republic

Responsible Care is a voluntary health, safety and environmental initiative of the global chemical industry with the main goal of increasing social trust in the industry, execution of responsible business and sustainability. This year marks thirty years since the first Czech chemical companies joined this voluntary initiative and adhere to its rules summarized in the Responsible Care Charter. To date, more than 90 chemical companies have been actively committed to this activity and respect its rules.

Drivers and barriers of voluntary sustainability initiatives in mining raw materials for batteries

The increasing adoption of electric vehicles (EV) is growing demand for battery raw materials including lithium, cobalt, nickel, and manganese. The potential for Voluntary Sustainability Initiatives (VSI) to mitigate the social and environmental impacts of mine development and operation is now in focus as resource supply scales rapidly. This study examines and synthesizes the drivers and barriers that influence extractive companies to voluntarily adopt sustainability initiatives, including certification and reporting, to mitigate social and environmental impacts. The methodology involved a thematic analysis of articles, initially identified through a systematic keyword search and further expanded with a snowball search technique. Thematic insights were classified and mapped against actors operating within the lithium-ion battery value-chain. The research found that drivers for adopting voluntary sustainability initiatives include maintaining market access, and addressing the increased need for frameworks to facilitate communication between companies and local communities. Barriers encompass short-term greenwashing undermining VSI legitimacy, and the lack of comprehensiveness of such initiatives regarding risk identification and risk mitigation for responsibly sourced commodities.

Beyond the classroom: the evolving spectrum of ESD research in Japan

PurposeEducation for Sustainable Development (ESD) has been robustly endorsed through policy mechanisms, prompting numerous context-specific voluntary initiatives in Japanese schools and communities. However, this field remains in its infancy. This study aimed to investigate the literature on ESD in Japan to reveal research trends, identify research gaps and propose areas for future research, from early childhood to higher and non-formal education.Design/methodology/approachThis study employed a qualitative design with a Systematic Literature Review (SLR) approach to analyze 88 peer-reviewed empirical studies on ESD in Japan from 2005 to 2023.FindingsThis study has revealed an observable increase in the number of ESD-related publications, especially after 2015. Most studies emphasize formal education, particularly from elementary school to universities. These articles were categorized into seven thematic foci, with “Pedagogical Approaches and Material Development in ESD” being the most prevalent. There has been an evident shift in Japan from traditional lecture-style methods toward learner-centered ESD pedagogies. However, the country lags behind the global education community in terms of research on and the implementation of Teacher Education for Sustainable Development and the Whole-School Approach.Research limitations/implicationsThe study is confined to peer-reviewed, empirical publications in Japanese or English, potentially overlooking significant non-empirical works and studies in other languages. This limitation could mean missing out on broader insights and perspectives. Furthermore, as a qualitative analysis, there's an inherent risk of bias in interpreting data and categorizing themes. These constraints suggest caution in generalizing the findings and indicate areas for further research, such as expanding the linguistic and methodological scope and enhancing objectivity in analysis.Practical implicationsThe findings suggest a pressing need for Japan to refine its approach to ESD, particularly in teacher training and school management, aligning more closely with global practices. For practical application, this involves adopting more holistic teacher education programs and school management strategies that integrate ESD principles comprehensively. Recognizing the unique challenges of Japan's educational culture is crucial for developing tailored strategies that not only follow global best practices but also resonate locally. These insights aim to guide meaningful interventions, promoting an education system adept at addressing sustainability challenges.Originality/valueCategorizing the literature into formal and non-formal settings and subsequently into seven themes offers a clear depiction of the research trends. A comparison of Japan's specific advancements and challenges in ESD with global trends, particularly in pedagogy, teacher education and institutional management, highlights the areas needing further exploration.

The future of agricultural data-sharing policy in Europe: stakeholder insights on the EU Code of Conduct

In 2018, the EU Code of Conduct of Agricultural Data Sharing by Contractual Agreement (EUCC) was published. This voluntary initiative is considered a basis for rights and responsibilities for data sharing in the agri-food sector, with a specific farmer orientation. While the involved industry associations agreed on its content, there are limited insights into how and to what extent the EUCC has been received and implemented within the sector. In 2024, the Data Act was introduced, a horizontal legal framework that aims to enforce specific legal requirements for data sharing across sectors. Yet, it remains to be seen if it will be the ultimate solution for the agricultural sector, as some significant agricultural data access issues remain. It is thus essential to determine if the EUCC may still play a significant role to address sector-specific issues in line with the horizontal rules of the Data Act. During six workshops across Europe with 89 stakeholders, we identified how the EUCC has been (1) received by stakeholders, (2) implemented, and (3) its future use (particularly in response to the Data Act). Based on the workshop results and continued engagements with researchers and stakeholders, we conclude that the EUCC is still an important document for the agricultural sector but should be updated in response to the content of the Data Act. Hence we propose the following improvements to the EUCC: 1. Provide clear, practical examples for applying the EUCC combined with the Data Act; 2. Generate model contractual terms based on the EUCC provisions; 3. Clarify GDPR-centric concepts like anonymisation and pseudonymisation in the agricultural data-sharing setting; 4. Develop a functional enforcement and implementation framework; and 5. Play a role in increasing interoperability and trust among stakeholders.

Trends in the healthiness and nutrient composition of packaged products sold by major food and beverage companies in New Zealand 2015 to 2019

BackgroundDietary risk factors are the leading cause of death globally and in New Zealand (NZ). Processed packaged foods are prevalent in the food supply and contribute excess amounts of sodium, saturated fat, and sugar in diets. Improving the nutritional quality of these foods has the potential to reduce population chronic disease risk. We aimed to evaluate the healthiness using the Australasian Health Star Rating (HSR, from 0.5 to 5 stars, with 5 being the healthiest) and nutrient composition (sodium, saturated fat, and total sugar) of packaged products manufactured by the largest NZ-based food and beverage companies in NZ 2015–2019. This analysis relates to a larger study evaluating structured engagement with food companies to improve nutrition-related policies and actions.MethodsData was sourced from Nutritrack, a NZ-branded supermarket-sourced food composition database. The largest NZ-based companies from annual retail sales revenue (n = 35) were identified using 2019 Euromonitor data. All relevant products of the selected companies were extracted for analysis. Products included totalled 17,795 with a yearly range of 3462–3672 products. The primary outcome was a nutrient profile score estimated using HSR. Healthiness was defined as ≥ 3.5 stars. Secondary outcomes were sodium, total sugar, and saturated fat per 100 g/100 mL. All outcomes were assessed overall, by food company, and food category. Change over time was tested using linear mixed models, adjusting for major food categories and cluster effects of food companies controlling for multiple comparisons. Model-adjusted mean differences between years were estimated with 95% confidence intervals.ResultsThere was a small statistically significant increase in mean HSR between 2015 and 2019 (0.08 [0.15,0.01], p = 0.024). Mean total sugar content decreased over the same period (0.78 g/100 g [0.08,1.47], p = 0.020), but there were no significant changes in mean sodium or saturated fat contents. Seven of the 13 categories showed small increases in mean HSR (0.1–0.2). Most categories (9/13) exhibited a reduction in mean total sugar content.ConclusionsBetween 2015 and 2019, there were slight improvements in the nutritional quality of selected packaged foods and drinks in NZ. Much more substantive changes are needed to address the health-related burden of unhealthy diets, supported by stronger government action and less reliance on voluntary industry initiatives.

Globalisation and Regulatory Strategies: Adapting to Changes in International Business

This article examines the interrelations between globalisation, economic development, and ecological sustainability. It analyses the role of financial innovations in promoting sustainable development and focuses on strategies that help companies adapt and thrive in the face of globalisation, turning challenges into opportunities. Given the complexity of the global business environment, success on the international level depends not only on the speed of changes but also on compliance with various regulatory standards. Regulatory strategies are crucial for mitigating risks and leveraging new opportunities. Therefore, companies must have a thorough understanding of their internal processes and the external regulatory and political environment. The research suggests that the integration of advanced financial instruments and effective political strategies can optimise the impact of globalisation, fostering economic growth and ecological sustainability. It is important to maintain a balanced and objective tone when presenting research findings. The importance of further analysing mechanisms for regulating globalisation processes and developing innovative financial instruments to stimulate environmentally sustainable investments is underscored, emphasising the need for international cooperation and adaptation to climate change. The study concludes that achieving harmony between economic progress and environmental protection requires economic measures, such as carbon taxes and emission quota systems, that embody the principle of pollution responsibility. Legislative initiatives that set limits on emissions and regulate resource use, as well as voluntary initiatives such as corporate social responsibility programs and eco-production criteria, are also necessary. The range of approaches reflects different methods of implementation, levels of compulsion, and stakeholder involvement. The implementation of a particular strategy depends on the economic context, political climate, level of public awareness, and technical readiness of a given country or region.

Voluntary initiatives of non-profit organizations in the formation of creative communities and creative spaces of the city: a philosophical view

Relevance. This article examines the topical issue of the role of the non-profit sector in urban development from a philosophical point of view. The authors cite key concepts that reveal the socio-legal aspects of the work of NGOs; define the socio-philosophical significance of the activities of non-profit organizations in Russian cities.The purpose of the study is to identify the impact of volunteer initiatives of the non-profit sector on the development of creative locations of cities, the dynamics of territorial development.Objectives: to determining the relationship of NGOs with the development of the creative potential of the city; socio-philosophical analysis of competitive materials of applications from non-profit organizations to civil society development funds; identification of directions for the formation of urban creative and innovative spaces created with the help of NGOs.Methodology. The work uses a systematic method, an analytical review and synthesis of the information under study. The authors used materials from open data reports on the evaluation of the results of the projects of the winners of the competitions for grants from the President of the Russian Federation for the development of civil society in 2022.Results. The result is an idea of the socio-cultural modernization of the urban sphere. Initiative in the implementation of voluntary urban socially significant projects forms the sustainability of urban living conditions, the investment and image attractiveness of the city, and the positive migration issue. The interrelation between initiative projects of representatives of the non-profit sector and socio-cultural design of the environment, activation of the creative class, and improvement of the comfort level of urban areas is revealed. Modern active NGOs in Russian cities represent the avant-garde, implementing creative projects and broadcasting cultural trends, creative practices that define the conceptual meanings of the development of a particular city (region). Projects based on the voluntary aspirations of citizens and related to the assistance of specific social groups acquire a sustainable character of development and form the features of the city.Conclusion. The results of the study showed that the work of the non-profit sector in Russian cities is transforming urban spaces by developing creative resources and creative industries.

From market-based development to value chain transformation: What markets can (not) do for rural poverty alleviation?

Market reforms are considered as an important strategy to support poverty reduction amongst small-scale agrifood producers in developing and emerging economies. Most attention is commonly focused on voluntary initiatives that provide a guaranteed minimum price to farmers and improve services for rural communities, supplemented by good agricultural practices for higher productivity, environmental quality and to support living incomes. Whereas alternative trade movements have become ‘mainstream’ their market shares are stagnating. Since agrifood markets have changed substantially and trade networks are restructured, smallholders are increasingly controlled by midstream agents (traders and processors) and captured into contract farming arrangements. This article outlines a new discourse around value chain transformation that supports local processing for income and employment generation and favours better integrated supply chains based on circularity and trust. It identifies new alliances between producers and traders that change market governance beyond simple adjustments in exchange relationships. Combining public investments (market infrastructure) with civic-driven organization (cooperation and contracts) and private networks (for profit redistribution along the value chain) offers interesting opportunities for linking sustainable business practices with value-driven trade arrangements.

Polycentric Climate Governance: The State, Local Action, Democratic Preferences, and Power—Emerging Insights and a Research Agenda

Abstract In recent years, climate governance has shifted from the global, multilateral regime to voluntary initiatives from multiple directions. Scholars frequently use a polycentric governance lens to study the complex and multijurisdictional reality. The polycentric perspective helps to grasp the new reality at a general level, but it is lacking in specificity. To fill this research gap, this article attempts to enhance the analytical power of the polycentric governance perspective by exploring four issues: the role of the state, diffusion of local action, integration of local democratic preferences, and the role of power. These issues are discussed by doing a systematic literature review of empirical polycentric governance literature regarding climate change mitigation. The results show the importance of states at the national level and provide insights into how local initiatives share and transfer knowledge, get supported by transnational networks, and secure compliance with local democratic preferences. The literature gives less insight related to power. The article concludes by developing research agendas for further cumulation of knowledge and to strengthen climate action at all levels.

Corporate Sustainability Due Diligence

Ever since the concept of Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) be-gan to take off in the 1970s, multinational corporations (MNCs) and international organizations have attempted to implement a variety of voluntary initiatives to detect and prevent human rights and environ-mental abuses within corporate supply chains. Despite these voluntary initiatives, however, human rights violations and environmental dam-age have continued to occur frequently within the supply chains of MNCs, leading to increased calls for binding, “hard law” remedies. The adoption of the United Nations’ Guiding Principles on Business and Human Rights (UNGPs) in 2011 catalyzed efforts to adopt domestic mandatory human rights due diligence (mHRDD) laws, and since 2017, a growing number of nations have passed more comprehensive human rights and environmental due diligence (HREDD) laws that recognize the connection between human rights and the environment. The most ambitious HREDD proposal thus far is the European Union’s proposed Corporate Sustainability Due Diligence Directive (CS3D), which, when enacted, will impose mandatory human rights and environmental due diligence requirements on corporations that conduct business in the European Union. This Note assesses the feasibility and desirability of adopting domes-tic HREDD legislation in the United States based on the framework provided by the EU’s proposed CS3D. The predominant reliance in the U.S. on voluntary CSR initiatives and limited disclosure regulations is insufficient to prevent human rights and environmental abuses in the supply chains of US-based MNCs. This Note argues that the proposed CS3D provides a promising model for how Congress could take strong-er action in this area. Although it would not completely prevent adverse impacts and could be initially challenging to implement because of the ambiguity surrounding its scope, comprehensive federal HREDD legislation based on the CS3D framework would be a significant step towards filling in the gaps in U.S. corporate accountability.

Evaluating the UN Global Compact Communication on Progress as a CSR Benchmarking Tool

Corporate social responsibility (CSR) extends beyond mere profit-seeking to encompass the ethical behavior of a company toward society, mitigating negative and generating positive impacts on the environment, consumers, employees, communities, and all stakeholders. The UN Global Compact (UNGC) is the world’s largest voluntary CSR initiative, and its Communication on Progress (CoP) requirement is a key reporting mechanism that allows participating companies to transparently showcase their progress and efforts regarding CSR. As more and more companies are reporting CSR practices, it is crucial to establish a global, standardized, trusted, accessible, and useful database that can be used by different stakeholders, including the companies themselves in the benchmarking process. This paper examines whether the UNGC CoP can be used as a sustainability benchmarking tool, based on well-established criteria, and compares it with other existing reporting frameworks. Results indicate that the UNGC CoP can be considered a benchmarking tool, being applicable to nearly all phases of the benchmarking process. The study also shows that the CoP stands out regarding other frameworks due to ample coverage of the sustainable development goals (SDGs), number of reporting companies, accessibility to all stakeholders, and consolidation of the information into one platform.

Corporate Social Responsibility: Impact on Firm Performance for an Emerging Economy

Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) was usually referred to as a concept where companies initiate voluntary action towards social and environmental concerns in the context of business operations related to the stakeholders of the company prior to the CSR Act 2013 in India. Post-2013, the voluntary initiative was replaced by regulatory guidelines to address social and environmental concerns. The CSR applicability–investment gap was used as a base concept in this study with instrumental theory; the study offers a strategic perspective of CSR and how organizations emphasized maximizing stakeholders’ value. In order to further investigate the effect of CSR on corporate financial performance (CFP) through the measure of shareholders’ value, i.e., the return on equity (ROE), the study used the sample from the National Stock Exchange (NSE)-Nifty-100 indexed companies of Emerging Economy—India for a span of fourteen years (2009–2023). The vast majority of research in this domain is conducted in developed countries; the research gap is filled by this study by considering India and drawing samples from multiple industries. The empirical model was developed by using panel data regression, where the dependent variable was ROE, and the independent variables were earning per share (EPS), log total income (LTI), CSR applicability/profit after tax (CRSAPPPAT), and CSR investment/profit after tax (CSRIPAT). The findings also highlighted the CSR applicability and investment of the firms during pre- and post-Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) periods. The same was also analyzed for the firms committed to CSR and not committed to CSR. The results indicated that there is no significant impact of the CSR/ESG initiatives (applicability and investment) on the ROE of the firms. The performance could be better if the companies minimize the CSR/ESG promise–performance gap through effective communication with stakeholders.

Proportions of trans fatty acids in erythrocytes of Canadian adults before the prohibition of partially hydrogenated oils in foods: results from the Canadian Health Measures Survey 2012–2015

BackgroundThe partially hydrogenated oil (PHO) prohibition came into effect in Canada in September 2018 to reduce the intakes of total trans fatty acids (t-TFAs) and industrially produced TFAs (i-TFAs). ObjectivesWe aimed to estimate the red blood cell (RBC) proportions of t-TFA (primary objective) and total 18:1 TFA (secondary objective) of adults in Canada before the PHO prohibition and to identify the population subgroups at risk of higher TFA intakes. MethodsWe pooled data from 4025 adult participants of the cross-sectional Canadian Health Measures Survey cycles 3 and 4 (2012–2015). We estimated mean proportions, relative to total fatty acids (FAs), of RBC t-TFA and 18:1 TFA and their associations with sociodemographic, health, and lifestyle characteristics using multiple linear regression models. ResultsThe nonadjusted mean RBC proportions of t-TFA and total 18:1 TFA were 0.59% (95% CI: 0.54, 0.63) and 0.27% (95% CI: 0.25, 0.29), respectively. In the adjusted models, the same participant characteristics were associated with t-TFA and 18:1 TFA but differences were generally smaller for 18:1 TFA than for t-TFA. Race, BMI, and alcohol intake were independently associated with RBC t-TFA and 18:1 TFA. Asian and Black participants had lower RBC t-TFA (−0.05% and −0.10% of total FA, respectively) than White participants. Obesity and high risk alcohol drinking were associated with slightly lower (≤0.06%) t-TFA proportions than lower adiposity and alcohol intake concentrations, respectively. ConclusionsPre-PHO prohibition in food in Canada, t-TFA proportions were relatively low compared with a proposed threshold of 1% of total RBC FAs, over which cardiovascular disease risk may be higher. Previous voluntary initiatives to reduce i-TFA in the food supply may explain these relatively low RBC t-TFA concentrations. Some population subgroups had higher baseline RBC TFA than other subgroups, but the physiological implications of these small differences, at relatively low baseline RBC TFA proportions, remain to be determined.

Still losing the race with technology? Understanding the scope of data controllers’ responsibility to implement data protection by design and by default

ABSTRACT Privacy by Design (PbD) is crucial for fundamental privacy protection. However, PbD remains a voluntary initiative without any means to ensure its effective implementation. Article 25 GDPR codifies PbD as a legal obligation requiring technologies processing personal data to follow Data Protection by Design and by Default (DPbDD). However, Article 25 is only binding on controllers which limits its scope. For instance, the design of technologies may not coincide with the entry of the controller into the digital value chain. This implies that the burden of implementing DPbDD lies on the users of technology and not on its designers, questioning the true extent of protection by design if stages like product development and innovation are excluded. This paper explores the legislative motivation behind the personal scope of Article 25. A holistic interpretation of Article 25 in light of other provisions of the GDPR shows a possibility, albeit not direct, to influence the design phase of technologies. However, it remains unclear whether this possibility ensures a co-division of responsibility. To address this, we propose examining corporate supply chain due diligence, specifically the due diligence obligations of mother companies for actions of their subsidiaries and business relationships.