Voluntary Autobiographical Memories Research Articles

Obtaining semantic-to-autobiographical memory priming on the vigilance task with non-verbal cues.

Recent research has shown that the activation of semantic memories leads to the activation of autobiographical memories. Known as semantic-to-autobiographical memory priming, this form of priming has been demonstrated to prime involuntary and voluntary autobiographical memories with a wide variety of different primes (i.e., various verbal and non-verbal stimuli). However, only verbal cues have been used in the memory measures, leaving open the question of how non-verbal cues might function. Our goal in the current study was to show that non-verbal cues are also involved in semantic-to-autobiographical memory priming. Participants were primed with words, and then they were treated to an involuntary autobiographical memory task (the vigilance task) where they received either word cues or pictorial cues. The results showed that both the word cues and the pictorial cues had captured primed involuntary memories on the vigilance task relative to controls. The results support the idea that semantic-to-autobiographical memory primes occur with both verbal and non-verbal cues, potentially indicating substantial cue diversity. The results also further support the idea that semantic-to-autobiographical memory priming may play an important role in the production of involuntary autobiographical memories in everyday life.

The Properties of Involuntary and Voluntary Autobiographical Memories in Chinese Patients with Depression and Healthy Individuals

The Properties of Involuntary and Voluntary Autobiographical Memories in Chinese Patients with Depression and Healthy Individuals

The Effects of an Online Mindfulness Intervention on Emotion Regulation upon Autobiographical Memory Retrieval in Depression Remission: a Pilot Randomized Controlled Trial

ObjectivesMaladaptive emotional processing of autobiographical memories is a key feature of depression that may persist during depressive remission. The primary objective of the present study was to assess the effects of an online mindfulness-based stress reduction (MBSR) intervention on emotion regulation upon everyday autobiographical memory retrieval in individuals with remitted depression.MethodsWe conducted a pilot randomized controlled trial in which students (76.4% female; mean age 22.26) with remitted depression were allocated to an 8-week online MBSR program (n = 28) or a waitlist-control condition (n = 27). The primary outcome was self-reported employment of five emotion regulation strategies and non-reactivity upon everyday retrieval of involuntary and voluntary autobiographical memories recorded in a memory diary and was measured at baseline and approximately 11 weeks postrandomization. Intention-to-treat (ITT) and per-protocol (PP) analyses were performed.ResultsParticipants in the MBSR condition showed increases in non-reactivity irrespective of memory retrieval mode (ITT: d = 1.04, p = .010; PP: d = 1.58, p = .015), and increased use of cognitive reappraisal in response to involuntary memories (ITT: d = 0.41, p = .051; PP: d = − 0.62, p = .032) compared to the waitlist-control condition. Analyses of secondary outcomes showed additional effects for trait mindfulness and trait cognitive reappraisal, as well as depression symptoms and trait thought suppression.ConclusionThese results provide preliminary evidence for the utility of using an online mindfulness program for improving emotion regulation upon autobiographical memory retrieval during depression remission.Retrospective Trial RegistrationClinicalTrials.gov, NCT05121116.

Unraveling the role of retrieval deficits in autobiographical memory impairment in schizophrenia: A comparison of involuntary and voluntary autobiographical memories

Patients with schizophrenia show severe autobiographical memory impairment, thought to reflect retrieval deficits caused by executive dysfunction. However, prior research has focused exclusively on strategic (voluntary) retrieval, and ignored involuntary retrieval resulting from automatic and associative processes, involving minimal cognitive control. We report two studies with patients diagnosed with schizophrenia (Ns = 40 and 50 respectively) comparing their impairment in involuntary versus voluntary autobiographical memory. We use two different methodologies, not previously used in schizophrenia research: a naturalistic study involving real-life data and an experimental setup. Both studies consistently showed that involuntary and voluntary autobiographical memories were similarly impaired in schizophrenia. The absence of interaction effects between group and retrieval suggests that schizophrenic patients did not benefit from memory tasks involving little retrieval effort. These findings suggest that autobiographical memory impairment in schizophrenia are not caused by problems with self-initiated voluntary retrieval, but instead likely reflect encoding or binding deficits.

Impact of Instructions on the Positivity Effect in Younger and Older Adults’ Autobiographical Memories

The positivity effect (PE) refers to age-related enhancement in memory for positive information or decreased memory for negative information. The PE is thought to be the result of age-associated shifts in motivational goals towards enhancing well-being. Research has demonstrated the PE in laboratory settings, and a meta-analysis showed that the PE was most robust in conditions with fewer instructions/constraints (Reed et al., 2014). Findings related to the PE in autobiographical memory (AM) are mixed. Goals of the current study include examining 1) whether the PE was evident across four increasingly restrictive AM conditions (involuntary AMs, voluntary AM with no constraints, voluntary AM within a specific time frame, voluntary AM within a specific time frame and related to a specific cue word), and 2) whether available cognitive resources (assessed with the Stroop task and a trail-making test) influence the PE, since cognitive control is essential for achieving goals. Participants (N=126) completed the shortened Memory Experiences Questionnaire for each memory, which assesses several phenomenological characteristics, including memory valence. There were no significant differences in memory valence between the younger (n=69, ages 18-34) and older adult (n=57; ages 60-85) groups for involuntary AMs or the less constrained voluntary AMs, but there was a significant difference for the most constrained AM wherein older adults rated their AMs as more positive than younger adults. Performance on cognitive control measures did not influence the AM valence. These results highlight the importance of considering the effects of type of stimuli and instructions when studying the PE.

Priming autobiographical memories: How recalling the past may affect everyday forms of autobiographical remembering.

This study investigated the idea that when one recalls past episodes, that the content of those memories will activate additional episodic memories with like content, and such memories will then have the potential of surfacing in subsequent acts of involuntary and voluntary recall. We tested the episodic content priming hypothesis in two experiments. In Experiment 1, priming group participants first recalled memories about specific activities or events and then they were subsequently engaged in a word-cue voluntary autobiographical memory task. The results showed that priming group participants produced more episodic memories involving the primed content on this task than control participants occupied in the same task. In Experiment 2, episodic content priming was further tested on a measure of involuntary autobiographical memory (i.e., the vigilance task). The results on this task also revealed support for the episodic content priming hypothesis, including after a delay of 24h.

Trait Mindfulness and Emotion Regulation upon Autobiographical Memory Retrieval during Depression Remission

ObjectivesDepression is associated with both emotion dysregulation upon retrieval of autobiographical memories and low trait mindfulness. The present study raised the question of whether these processes are related to each other and whether they may reflect a cognitive-affective vulnerability in individuals at risk of depression. The study examined emotion regulation in response to involuntary and voluntary autobiographical memories during depression remission and explored how trait mindfulness relates to such emotion regulation.MethodsThe study employed a naturalistic design in which individuals with remitted depression (n = 35) and individuals with no history of depression (n = 32) completed a trait mindfulness measure and a structured memory diary where they rated state use of five emotion regulation strategies upon involuntary and voluntary autobiographical memory retrieval.ResultsIndividuals with remitted depression reported heightened brooding in response to autobiographical memories when memory retrieval occurred involuntarily, and trait mindfulness was low. Depression remission and higher trait mindfulness were independently associated with greater cognitive reappraisal efforts upon involuntary retrieval of autobiographical memories. Higher trait mindfulness predicted less memory suppression, irrespective of depression history and memory retrieval mode.ConclusionsThe findings suggest a vulnerability in emotional processing of autobiographical memories during depression remission that is dependent on mindfulness skill level and how memories come to mind.

İstemli ve İstemsiz Otobiyografik Anılara Ulaşmada Doğrudan ve Üretici Geri Çağırmanın Rolü

Otobiyografik anılara ulaşmada, doğrudan (direct) ve üretici (generative) geri çağırma olarak bilinen iki farklı mekanizma işlemektedir. Günümüze dek yapılan çalışmalarda, bu iki geri çağırma mekanızmasının neden olduğu farklar yalnızca istemli bir hatırlama süreci sonrasında elde edilen anıların karşılaştırılmasıyla incelenmiştir. Ayrıca, istemli ve istemsiz otobiyografik anıları karşılaştıran çalışmaların neredeyse tamamında geri çağırma mekanizmalarının etkisi dikkate alınmamıştır. Bu çalışma, istemsiz otobiyografik anılara da doğrudan geri çağırma mekanizmasıyla erişildiği kabulünden yola çıkarak istemsiz otobiyografik anıları (İ-OA), doğrudan (D+OA) ve üretici geri çağırma (Ü+OA) ile erişilen istemli otobiyografik anılar ile grup-içi bir desende karşılaştıran ilk çalışmadır. İstemsiz anılar Uyanıklık Görevi, istemli anılar Galton-Crovitz anahtar sözcük yöntemi kullanılarak iki ayrı oturumda toplanmıştır. Bulgular, her iki oturuma da katılan 62 kişiden (44 kadın, 18 erkek) elde edilmiştir. Araştırma sonuçlarına göre, D+OA'lar istemli bir şekilde hatırlanıyor olmasına karşın, çoğu özelliği açısından aynı geri çağırma mekanizmasını kullanan İ-OA'lar ile benzerlik göstermektedir. Özetle, Ü+OA'lara kıyasla, hem D+OA'lar hem de İ-OA'lar daha kısa sürede hatırlanmıştır. Ayrıca, bu anılar daha belirgin ve duygusal etkileri daha yüksek olan anılar olmuştur. Aynı sözcükler ile tetiklenen istemli ve istemsiz anılar arasında belirginlik açısından anlamlı bir fark bulunmaması ise İ-OA'ların belirginlikteki üstünlüğünün kişisel olarak ayırt edici ipuçlarıyla tetiklenmelerinden kaynaklandığına işaret etmektedir. Ek olarak, yakın geçmişte yaşanmış bir olayın istemli ya da istemsiz hatırlanmasında çoğu fenomenolojik değerlendirme açısından fark bulunmamıştır. Kısaca, bulgular, istemli ve istemsiz anılar arasındaki farkların genel olarak, kasıtlı ya da kendiliğinden oluşan bir hatırlamadan ziyade, geri çağırma mekanizmalarından ileri geldiğine işaret etmektedir.

Semantic memories prime autobiographical memories: General implications and implications for everyday autobiographical remembering.

This study investigated the idea that semantic memory activation causes the activation of associated autobiographical memories (e.g., reading the word summer activates knowledge representations in semantic memory, as well as associated personal memories about summer in autobiographical memory). We tested this semantic-autobiographical memory priming hypothesis in three experiments. In Experiment 1, participants were primed with concepts (e.g., summer) on a familiarity task and were then given a word-cue voluntary autobiographical memory task. In support of the hypothesis, the results showed that primed participants had more autobiographical memories overlapping with the primed concepts than control participants. In Experiment 2, participants were similarly primed, but in this case they were given a measure of involuntary autobiographical memory (i.e., Schlagman and Kvavilashvili's (Memory & Cognition, 36, 920-932, 2008) vigilance task). The results of this experiment also supported the semantic-autobiographical memory-priming hypothesis. Experiment 3 ruled out an alternative possibility (i.e., that autobiographical memory processing had occurred in the word familiarity task) by showing that semantic-autobiographical priming had resulted from a priming task (lexical decision) where autobiographical memory processing was unlikely. The implications of these findings are discussed.

Frequency and functions of involuntary and voluntary autobiographical memories across the day.

Involuntary autobiographical memories are memories of personally experienced events that come to mind spontaneously, whereas voluntary (i.e., deliberately recalled) memories are based on strategic retrieval processes, reflecting a goal-directed search. Previous work using an online recording methodology (i.e., a mechanical counter) has shown that involuntary compared with voluntary memories are 3 times as frequent in daily life, but there is evidence to suggest that frequency estimates of involuntary memories are sensitive to the methods used to make the recordings. Here, we use different types of online recording devices across 3 studies. In Study 1, using a mechanical counter, we replicated previous work showing that involuntary memories are almost 3 times as frequent as their voluntary counterparts. In Studies 2 and 3, we used smartphones to assess online frequency and found that the shift in recording device led to a decrease in the frequency of involuntary but not of voluntary memories. Furthermore, the smartphone assessment showed that involuntary memories were more frequent in the middle of the day, whereas voluntary retrieval was evenly distributed across the day. Voluntary relative to involuntary memories were estimated to serve more problem solving and directive functions in Studies 1 and 2 and as being more functionally relevant to the ongoing situation in Study 3. In conclusion, regardless of recording device, involuntary memories are at least as frequent as their voluntary counterparts, but are perceived to be less functionally relevant to the immediate retrieval context.

Ways of sampling voluntary and involuntary autobiographical memories in daily life.

Cognitive psychologists have often equaled retrieval of personal events with voluntary recall from autobiographical memory, but more recent research shows that autobiographical memories often come to mind involuntarily-that is, with no retrieval effort. Voluntary memories have been studied in numerous laboratory experiments in response to word-prompts, whereas involuntary memories primarily have been examined in an everyday living context, using a structured diary procedure. However, it remains unclear how voluntary memories sampled in the laboratory map onto self-prompted voluntary memories in daily life. Here, we used a structured diary procedure to compare different types of voluntary autobiographical memories to their involuntary counterparts. The results replicated previous findings with regard to differences between word-prompted voluntary and involuntary memories, whereas there were fewer differences between self-prompted voluntary and involuntary memories. The findings raise the question as to what is the best way of sampling voluntary memories and the best comparison for involuntary memories.

Priming voluntary autobiographical memories: Implications for the organisation of autobiographical memory and voluntary recall processes

The goal of this study was to show that voluntary autobiographical memories could be primed by the prior activation of autobiographical memories. Three experiments demonstrated voluntary memory priming with three different approaches. In Experiment 1 primed participants were asked to recall memories from their elementary school years. In a subsequent memory task primed participants were asked to recall memories from any time period, and they produced significantly more memories from their elementary school years than unprimed participants. In Experiment 2 primed participants were asked to recall what they were doing when they had heard various news events occurring between 1998 and 2005. Subsequently these participants produced significantly more memories from this time period than unprimed participants. In Experiment 3 primed participants were asked to recall memories from their teenage years. Subsequently these participants were able to recall more memories from ages 13–15 than unprimed participants, where both had only 1 second to produce a memory. We argue that the results support the notion that episodic memories can activate one another and that some of them are organised according to lifetime periods. We further argue that the results have implications for the reminiscence bump and voluntary recall of the past.

The characteristics of involuntary and voluntary autobiographical memories in depressed and never depressed individuals

This study compares involuntary and voluntary autobiographical memories in depressed and never depressed individuals. Twenty depressed and twenty never depressed individuals completed a memory diary; recording their reactions to 10 involuntary and 10 voluntary memories over 14-30 days. Psychiatric status (Structured Clinical Interview for DSM-IV, SCID-1), psychopathology, rumination and avoidance were assessed. For both groups, involuntary memories more frequently lead to strong reactions than voluntarily memories. For both modes of retrieval, depressed individuals reported more frequent negative reactions than never depressed individuals and rated memories as more central to identity with higher levels of rumination and avoidance. Depressed individuals retrieved both positive and negative memories during involuntary retrieval. These findings support the view that involuntary memory retrieval represents a basic mode of retrieval during healthy and disordered cognition, and that during depression, both involuntary and voluntary memories are central to identity and associated with rumination and avoidance.

Involuntary and voluntary autobiographical memory specificity as a function of depression

Background and objectivesThis study tests the hypothesis derived from the CaR-FA-X model (Capture and Rumination, Functional Avoidance and Executive Function model, Williams et al., 2007), that depressed individuals will be less specific during voluntary than involuntary autobiographical memory retrieval and looks at the relative contributions of rumination, avoidance and executive function to memory specificity. MethodsTwenty depressed and twenty never depressed individuals completed a memory diary, recording 10 involuntary and 10 voluntary autobiographical memories. Psychiatric status (assessed with the Structured Clinical Interview for DSM-IV, SCID-1), psychopathology, rumination, avoidance and executive function were assessed prior to completion of the memory diary. ResultsBoth groups were more specific during involuntary than voluntary memory retrieval. No overall group differences were identified. However, when non-remitted depressed participants were compared to partially remitted and never depressed participants the expected interaction was identified; non-remitted depressed individuals were less specific during voluntary, but not during involuntary recall. Consistent with theory, negative correlations between memory specificity, rumination and avoidance were also present. LimitationsThe study presents an important yet preliminary finding which warrants further replication with a larger sample size. ConclusionsThe findings provide support for a number of models of autobiographical memory retrieval in particular the CaR-FA-X model of memory specificity.

The unpredictable past: Spontaneous autobiographical memories outnumber autobiographical memories retrieved strategically

Involuntary autobiographical memories are spontaneously arising memories of personal events, whereas voluntary memories are retrieved strategically. Voluntary remembering has been studied in numerous experiments while involuntary remembering has been largely ignored. It is generally assumed that voluntary recall is the standard way of remembering, whereas involuntary recall is the exception. However, little is known about the actual frequency of these two types of remembering in daily life. Here, 48 Danish undergraduates recorded their involuntary versus voluntary autobiographical memories during a day using a mechanical counter. Involuntary memories were reported three times as frequently as voluntary memories. Compared to voluntary memories, they were associated less with problem solving and social sharing and more with day dreaming, periods of boredom, no reasons for remembering and predominantly came to mind during unfocused attention. The findings suggest that involuntary recall is a typical way of accessing the personal past.

Gender, personality, and involuntary autobiographical memory

We utilised the recently developed continuous word association task (CWAT) to investigate whether attributes of involuntary autobiographical memory, including gender and cue valence effects, were similar to those found for voluntary autobiographical memory, as well as investigating the role of individual differences in memory production. A total of 80 undergraduate volunteers reported involuntary memories that came to mind during the word association task and completed measures of trait dissociation and psychosis-proneness. Involuntary memories showed similar cue valence effects to those typically found with voluntary memories but the usual gender effect was only apparent once participants learned the task involved autobiographical memory. The total number of involuntary autobiographical memories produced in response to negative cue words was related to greater trait dissociation and psychosis-proneness. The implications for differences between voluntary and involuntary autobiographical memory are discussed.

Involuntary and voluntary mental time travel in high and low worriers

Worry as a trait is an individual's general tendency to become worried, which in severe cases is associated with the diagnosis Generalised Anxiety Disorder. Mental time travel (MTT) is the ability to mentally project oneself into one's personal past or future, in terms of memories of personal past events or projections of possible events in the personal future. MTT can be voluntarily initiated or occur involuntarily. The current exploratory study investigated involuntary and voluntary MTT in the context of trait worry, thereby bringing together research on worry and MTT. High (N=20) and low (N=16) worriers recorded involuntary and voluntary autobiographical memories and future projections using a structured diary method. We predicted that MTT in high worriers would show signs of cognitive avoidance, such as reduced emotional intensity, more observer perspective, less visual imagery, or coming up with overgeneral or less self-relevant events. We found only partial support for our hypotheses in that high worriers rated personal memories and future projections lower on measures of self-relevance than did low worriers.

Reconstructing autobiographical memories for the present: Objectification, anchoring, generational effect and social contexts

The present study examines the representational content of voluntary and involuntary autobiographical memories (objectification), as well as the anchorings according to age, sex and time contexts. 1.200 individuals of both sexes and different ages participated in this study and were asked to write down three memory events and three “oblivion” events in a personal, family and social framework and to note the date that these events took place. The results highlight the significance of social contexts in the reconstruction of the autobiographical past, which are space, time and different affiliation groups. The content of autobiographical memory is constructed through everyday relationships between the individuals and the members of the groups they belong to. Family, school, friends, the workspace, the socio-historical and political framework of their era provide the individuals with identity references. Both the quality and the time reference of the events depend on the age of the participants.

Current concerns in involuntary and voluntary autobiographical memories

Involuntary autobiographical memories are conscious memories of personal events that come to mind with no preceding attempts at retrieval. It is often assumed that such memories are closely related to current concerns--i.e., uncompleted personal goals. Here we examined involuntary versus voluntary (deliberately retrieved) autobiographical memories in relation to earlier registered current concerns measured by the Personal Concern Inventory (PCI; Cox & Klinger, 2000). We found no differences between involuntary and voluntary memories with regard to frequency or characteristics of current concern-related contents. However, memories related to current concerns were rated as more central to the person's identity, life story and expectations for the future than non-concern-related memories, irrespective of mode of recall. Depression and PTSD symptoms correlated positively with the proportion of current concern-related involuntary and voluntary memories. The findings support the view that involuntary and voluntary remembering is subject to similar motivational constraints.

Involuntary conscious memory facilitates cued recall performance: Further evidence that chaining occurs during voluntary recall

Recent studies have shown that conscious recollection of the past occurs spontaneously when subjects voluntarily recall their own past experiences or a list of previously studied words. Naturalistic diary studies and laboratory studies of this phenomenon, often called involuntary conscious memory (ICM), show that it occurs in 2 ways. One is direct ICM retrieval, which occurs when a cue spontaneously triggers a conscious memory; the other is chained ICM retrieval, which occurs when a retrieved conscious memory spontaneously triggers another. Laboratory studies investigating ICM show that chained ICM retrieval occurs on voluntary autobiographical memory tasks. The present results show that chained ICM retrieval also occurs on a voluntary word list memory task (cued recall). These results are among a handful suggesting that ICM retrieval routinely occurs during voluntary recall.