Visual Search Time Research Articles

Sense of agency at a gaze-contingent display with jittery temporal delay.

Inconsistent jittery temporal delays between action and subsequent feedback, prevalent in network-based human-computer interaction (HCI), have been insufficiently explored, particularly regarding their impact on the sense of agency (SoA). This study investigates the SoA in the context of eye-gaze HCI under jittery delay conditions. Participants performed a visual search for Chinese characters using a biresolutional gaze-contingent display, which displayed a high-resolution image in the central vision and a low-resolution in the periphery. We manipulated the delay between eye movements and display updates using a truncated normal distribution (μ to μ + 2 σ) with μ ranging from 0 to 400 ms and σ fixed at 50 ms. Playback of recorded gaze data provided a non-controllable condition. The study revealed that both reported authorship and controllability scores, as well as the fixation count per second, decreased as μ increased, aligning with trends observed under constant delay conditions. The subjective authorship weakened significantly at a μ of 94 ms. Notably, the comparison between jittery and constant delays indicated the minimum value (μ) of the distribution as a critical parameter influencing both authorship perception and visual search time efficiency. This finding underscores the importance of the shortest delay in modulating SoA. Further examining the relative distribution for fixation duration and saccade amplitude suggests an adaptation in action planning and attention distribution in response to delay. By providing a systematic examination of the statistical attributes of jittery delays that most significantly affect SoA, this research offers valuable implications for the design of efficient, delay-tolerant eye-gaze HCI, expanding our understanding of SoA in technologically mediated interactions. Moreover, our findings highlight the significance of considering both constant and variable delay impacts in HCI usability design, marking a novel contribution to the field.

Gaze and behavioural metrics in the refractive correction of presbyopia.

To investigate gaze and behavioural metrics at different viewing distances with multifocal contact lenses (MFCLs), single vision contact lenses (SVCLs) and progressive addition lenses (PALs). Fifteen presbyopic contact lens wearers participated over five separate study visits. At each visit, participants were randomly assigned to wear one of five refractive corrections: habitual PAL spectacles, delefilcon A (Alcon Inc.) MFCLs and three separate pairs of delefilcon A single vision lenses worn as distance, intermediate and near corrections. Participants wore a Pupil Core headset to record eye and head movements while performing three visual tasks: reading, visual search and scene observation. Data were investigated using linear regression and post-hoc testing. Parameters of interest included gaze (fixation duration, head movement) and behavioural (reading speed, reading accuracy, visual search time) metrics. Reading speed in SVCLs was significantly faster than in MFCLs and PAL spectacles (F = 16.3, p < 0.0001). Refractive correction worn did not influence visual search times (F = 0.16, p = 0.85). Fixation duration was significantly affected by the type of visual task (F = 60.2, p < 0.001), and an interaction effect was observed between viewing distance and refractive correction (F = 4.3, p = 0.002). There was significantly more horizontal and vertical head movement (F = 3.2, p = 0.01 and F = 3.3, p = 0.01, respectively) during visual search tasks when wearing PAL spectacles compared to SVCLsor MFCLs. This work showed that the type of refractive correction affects behavioural metrics such as reading speed and gaze behaviour by affecting horizontal and vertical head movements. The findings of this study suggest that under certain conditions, wearers of MFCLs make fewer head movements compared to PAL spectacles. Gaze behaviour metrics offer a new approach to compare and understand contact lens and spectacle performance, with potential applications including peripheral optical designs for myopia management.

Saccadic movements during an exploratory visual search task in patients with glaucomatous visual field loss.

To evaluate the saccadic movements of patients with visual field loss due to primary open-angle glaucoma. Thirteen patients with good visual acuity (0.2 logMAR or better) (seven patients with primary open-angle glaucoma 65 ± 13 years) and six controls (51 ± 6 years) yielded a comprehensive ophthalmological examination, including Humphrey Visual Field tests (SITA-Standard 24-2), and performed a monocular, exploratory digital visual search task that quantifies the duration for finding the number "4" on a random array of digits distributed on the screen. After individual adjustments of the angle and distance positioning, the screen was spatially matched with the 24-2 visual field, and divided into five areas for analysis. During the task, saccades were simultaneously recorded in the same eye with a video-based eye tracker. The patients with primary open-angle glaucoma showed a significantly higher number of saccades/screen (median ± interquartile range, 59.00 ± 29.00 vs. 32.50 ± 19.75 saccades (p=0.027) and visual search time per screen (38.50 ± 60.14 vs. 23.75 ± 8.90 seconds (p=0.035) than the controls did. Although the univariate analysis indicated a significant correlation with visual field mean deviation (coefficient=26.19 (p=0.02), only the visual search time/screen was significantly associated with the number of saccades/screen in the multivariate regression model (coefficient=0.55 (p<0.001). Overall, no significant correlation was observed between the sectorial number of saccades and the sensitivity of the five visual field areas. The patients with primary open-angle glaucoma show impaired search performance and showed a higher number of saccades needed to find stimuli when performing the exploratory visual task.

Eye Movement on Predicting Serve Return of College Female Tennis Players of Different Levels in Henan Province

Objective: To quantitatively evaluate the influence of sports level on the behavioral indexes and eye movement indexes of female tennis players by independent sample T test analysis, and to provide strategic basis for visual search of athletes. Methods: In this study, 20 female tennis players from colleges and universities in Henan Province were randomly selected as professional group, and 20 female tennis students from colleges and universities in Henan Province were randomly selected as amateur group. All the tested players had normal vision (5.0 after correction), healthy body, and were right-handed racket holding players. The experiment was conducted to compare the two groups of subjects' prediction accuracy rate, reaction time, total number of effective gaze, gaze track and interest area and other eye movement characteristics when watching videos. Results: The professional group had shorter reaction time, and the correct rate was obviously higher than the amateur group. The total effective fixation point of the professional group was more than that of the amateur group, and the professional group could focus more information. The professional group had a mature grasp of cognitive processing strategies, and their visual search times were targeted; Athletes in the professional group can allocate more attention to the key areas of interest that affect the serve landing point, and highly focus on the interest areas directly related to the direction of the serve, so that they can search information more accurately and improve the accuracy of the prediction.

Autism-related traits are related to effectiveness of immersive visual guidance on spatial cognitive ability: a pilot study

A head-mounted display could potentially restrict users’ visual fields and thereby impair their spatial cognitive ability. Spatial cognition can be assisted with immersive visual guidance. However, whether this technique is useful for individuals with autism-spectrum disorder (ASD) remains unclear. Given the recent virtual reality (VR) contents targeting individuals with ASD, the relationship between ASD-related traits and the effectiveness of immersive visual guidance should be clarified. This pilot study evaluated how ASD-related traits (autistic traits and empathizing–systemizing cognitive styles) among typically developing individuals are related to the effectiveness of visual guidance. Participants performed visual search and spatial localization tasks while using immersive visual guidance. In the visual search task, participants searched immersive VR environments for a target object and pushed a button according to the target color as quickly as possible. In the localization task, they viewed immersive visual guidance for a short duration and localized the guided direction via a controller. Results showed that visual search times were hastened with systemizing cognition. However, ASD-related traits were not significantly related to localization accuracy. These findings suggest that immersive visual guidance is generally useful for individuals with higher ASD-related traits.

Individual differences in speech-on-speech masking are correlated with cognitive and visual task performance.

Individual differences in spatial tuning for masked target speech identification were determined using maskers that varied in type and proximity to the target source. The maskers were chosen to produce three strengths of informational masking (IM): high [same-gender, speech-on-speech (SOS) masking], intermediate (the same masker speech time-reversed), and low (speech-shaped, speech-envelope-modulated noise). Typical for this task, individual differences increased as IM increased, while overall performance decreased. To determine the extent to which auditory performance might generalize to another sensory modality, a comparison visual task was also implemented. Visual search time was measured for identifying a cued object among "clouds" of distractors that were varied symmetrically in proximity to the target. The visual maskers also were chosen to produce three strengths of an analog of IM based on feature similarities between the target and maskers. Significant correlations were found for overall auditory and visual task performance, and both of these measures were correlated with an index of general cognitive reasoning. Overall, the findings provide qualified support for the proposition that the ability of an individual to solve IM-dominated tasks depends on cognitive mechanisms that operate in common across sensory modalities.

Early detection of cognitive decline in Alzheimer's disease using eye tracking.

Patients with Alzheimer's disease (AD) are known to exhibit visuospatial processing impairment, as reflected in eye movements from the early stages of the disease. We investigated whether the pattern of gaze exploration during visual tasks could be useful for detecting cognitive decline at the earliest stage. Sixteen AD patients (age: 79.1 ± 7.9 years, Mini Mental State Examination [MMSE] score: 17.7 ± 5.3, mean ± standard deviation) and 16 control subjects (age: 79.4 ± 4.6, MMSE score: 26.9 ± 2.4) participated. In the visual memory task, subjects memorized presented line drawings for later recall. In the visual search tasks, they searched for a target Landolt ring of specific orientation (serial search task) or color (pop-out task) embedded among arrays of distractors. Using video-oculography, saccade parameters, patterns of gaze exploration, and pupil size change during task performance were recorded and compared between AD and control subjects. In the visual memory task, the number of informative regions of interest (ROIs) fixated was significantly reduced in AD patients compared to control subjects. In the visual search task, AD patients took a significantly longer time and more saccades to detect the target in the serial but not in pop-out search. In both tasks, there was no significant difference in the saccade frequency and amplitude between groups. On-task pupil modulation during the serial search task was decreased in AD. The number of ROIs fixated in the visual memory task and search time and saccade numbers in the serial search task differentiated both groups of subjects with high sensitivity, whereas saccade parameters of pupil size modulation were effective in confirming normal cognition from cognitive decline with high specificity. Reduced fixation on informative ROIs reflected impaired attentional allocation. Increased search time and saccade numbers in the visual search task indicated inefficient visual processing. Decreased on-task pupil size during visual search suggested decreased pupil modulation with cognitive load in AD patients, reflecting impaired function of the locus coeruleus. When patients perform the combination of these tasks to visualize multiple aspects of visuospatial processing, cognitive decline can be detected at an early stage with high sensitivity and specificity and its progression be evaluated.

Visual search and childhood vision impairment: A GAMLSS-oriented multiverse analysis approach

The aim of this report was to analyze reaction times and accuracy in children with a vision impairment performing a feature-based visual search task using a multiverse statistical approach. The search task consisted of set sizes 4, 16, and 24, consisting of distractors (circle) and a target (ellipse) that were presented randomly to school-aged individuals with or without a vision impairment. Interactions and main effects of key variables relating to reaction times and accuracy were analyzed via a novel statistical method blending GAMLSS (generalized additive models for location, scale, and shape) and distributional regression trees. Reaction times for the target-present and target-absent conditions were significantly slower in the vision impairment group with increasing set sizes (p < .001). Female participants were significantly slower than were males for set sizes 16 and 24 in the target-absent condition (p < .001), with male participants being significantly slower than females in the target-present condition (p < .001). Accuracy was only significantly worse (p = .03) for participants less than 14 years of age for the target-absent condition with set sizes 16 and 24. There was a positive association between binocular visual acuity and search time (p < .001). The application of GAMLSS with distributional regression trees to the analysis of visual search data may provide further insights into underlying factors affecting search performance in case-control studies where psychological or physical differences may influence visual search outcomes.

Role of reading medium and audio distractors on visual search

PurposeVisual search is an active perceptual task influenced by objective factors and subjective factors such as task difficulty, distractors, attention and familiarity respectively. We studied the effect of different search directions, task medium and presence or absence of audio distractors on visual search time in young normal subjects MethodsTwenty-four young (19–27 years) subjects with normal ocular health (except refractive error) participated in the study after obtaining informed consent. Subjects performed a word search task of ten 7-letter words of medium difficulty level. It was performed by each subject in Up-down, Down-Up, Left-Right, Right-Left, Diagonal and Random directions, with equal number of distractors. The task was performed in paper and digital medium, with or without audio distractors. The conditions were performed in random order by each subject and the time taken to accurately complete the word search was documented for each condition. ResultThe visual search time (VST) was significantly different with different search directions (ANOVA p<0.0001, df=5), considering both digital and non-digital medium, with or without audio distractors. The average VST was the least for left-right search direction (100±7.2 s) and was highest for random search direction (291±19 s), on a digital medium (VSTdigital: 183±77 s) and in presence of an audio distractor (VSTaudio: 184±77 s). The VST scores were not correlated with the age (r=-0.14, p = 0.25). ConclusionThe visual search time is significantly delayed for search direction other than left-right direction and in presence of an audio distractor on a digital medium. These factors could play a significant role in visual orientation and specific tasks such as reading.

Distance effects on visual search and visually guided freehand interaction on large displays

Different from mouse-based and touch-based interactions at a static distance, motion-sensing interaction on a large display is typically performed at varying distances ranging from an arm's length to several metres. To investigate the effect of distance on visual search and freehand interaction performance, an empirical experiment was conducted; 30 participants were recruited to complete a series of target search and freehand selection tasks on large displays, which were 1.6 and 2.4 m wide, respectively. The results indicated that (1) the user-preferred viewing distance was positively related to the physical size of the display: a larger display size corresponded to a larger viewing distance. (2) The viewing distance had a two-sided effect on the visual search time efficiency. At a close range, increasing distance improved the search time efficiency; but at a farther range, the efficiency decreased. (3) An optimal field of view at which visual search was most efficient was found; (4) however, increasing the distance lowered freehand interaction efficiency and accuracy. Changing the distance also caused variations in the performance on divided large display areas: (5) the visual search efficiency on the upper area was higher than that on the lower area, increasing the distance reduced the difference; (6) freehand interaction efficiency and accuracy on the lower area outperformed that on the upper area, increasing the distance also reduced the difference. Implications were discussed for building more efficient and user-friendly large display-based user interfaces.

Do Congruent Auditory Stimuli Facilitate Visual Search in Dynamic Environments? An Experimental Study Based on Multisensory Interaction.

The purpose of this study was to investigate the cue congruency effect of auditory stimuli during visual search in dynamic environments. Twenty-eight participants were recruited to conduct a visual search experiment. The experiment applied auditory stimuli to understand whether they could facilitate visual search in different types of background. Additionally, target location and target orientation were manipulated to clarify their influences on visual search. Target location was related to horizontal visual search and target orientation was associated with visual search for an inverted target. The results regarding dynamic backgrounds reported that target-congruent auditory stimuli could speed up the visual search time. In addition, the cue congruency effect of auditory stimuli was critical for the center of the visual display but declined for the edge, indicating the inhibition of horizontal visual search behavior. Moreover, few improvements accompanying auditory stimuli were provided for the visual detection of non-inverted and inverted targets. The findings of this study suggested developing multisensory interaction with head-mounted displays, such as augmented reality glasses, in real life.

The Effects of Visual Complexity and Decluttering Methods on Visual Search and Target Detection in Cockpit Displays

ABSTRACT Efficient visual search and accurate target detection are crucial during flight operations. Despite the continuous effort to improve cockpit displays, visual complexity remains to be a problem that affects pilots’ search and detection performance. This has become more evident with the integration of high fidelity and information loaded cockpit displays of the fifth-generation fighter aircraft. One known but often overlooked solution to mitigate the problem with visual complexity is by decluttering. This study aims to provide an objective definition of visual complexity in cockpit displays and investigate its effects on visual search time and target detection accuracy. Moreover, it also aims to compare the visual search and target detection performance across different decluttering methods. Lastly, it intends to propose threat-based criteria for decluttering information in cockpit displays. The present study is divided into three sections, each addressing one of the three main objectives of this research. In study 1, visual search time and target detection accuracy were compared across three conditions that consist of displays with varying levels of visual complexity (low, medium and high). Visual complexity is operationally defined as the combination of different features (color, shape and orientation) and its variations (e.g., color: red, green, white). In study 2, differences in visual search time and target detection accuracy across four decluttering methods (dimming, dotting, small sizing and removal) and between groups (pilot and non-pilot) were analyzed. In study 3, through AHP analysis a threat scoring equation was proposed and tested. The results of the first study suggest that increased visual complexity leads to an increase in visual search time and more target detection errors. On the other hand, findings from the latter study revealed that there is a significant difference in the visual search time and target detection accuracy between different decluttering methods. Moreover, group differences were found when the threat scoring equation was applied to the targets. The results of the present study could provide inferences on how to alleviate the adverse effects of visual complexity through the utilization of effective decluttering methods, which in turn could further improve pilots’ overall performance.

The Effect of Mood State on Visual Search Times under VR Environment

The Effect of Mood State on Visual Search Times under VR Environment

Probabilistic cuing of visual search: Neither implicit nor inflexible.

In probabilistic cuing of visual search, participants search for a target object that appears more frequently in one region of the display. This task results in a search bias toward the rich quadrant compared with other quadrants. Previous research has suggested that this bias is inflexible (difficult to unlearn) and implicit (participants are unaware of the biased distribution of targets). We tested these hypotheses in two preregistered, high-powered experiments (Ns = 160 and 161). In an initial biased stage, participants performed a standard probabilistic cuing task. In a subsequent unbiased stage, the target appeared in all quadrants with equal probability. Awareness questions were included after the biased stage in one group of participants, and after the unbiased stage in a second group. Results showed that participants were aware of the rich area, and this effect was larger for the group whose awareness was assessed after the biased stage. In addition, analyses of visual search times indicated that the search bias toward the rich area (formed during the biased stage) was reduced during the unbiased stage. These results cast doubts on the characterization of probabilistic cuing as an implicit and inflexible search habit. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2020 APA, all rights reserved).

Sacrificing one visual hemifield during pediatric epilepsy surgery: Effects on visual search.

To investigate early and late effects of planned surgically acquired homonymous hemianopias on visual search in children and adolescents. This prospective study included five patients (5y 5m-18y 0m; 2 girls) with pharmaco-refractory epilepsies in whom one visual hemifield was sacrificed as part of the surgical strategy, and, as controls, seven patients (5y 11m-18y 0m; 6 girls) undergoing epilepsy surgeries not affecting the visual fields. Visual search was studied using the "TableTest", which is an everyday life-like visual search test. General processing speed was studied using a standard IQ subtest. All five patients with newly acquired homonymous hemianopias showed a relative disadvantage of visual search times for objects in their newly blind hemifields immediately after the surgery. Six months later, this relative disadvantage had recovered completely in all patients. Nevertheless, compared with the preoperative situation, overall search times were still prolonged in the hemianopic patients, but this effect could be mitigated or even overcompensated by improvements in processing speed. Children with homonymous hemianopias inflicted by epilepsy surgery develop effective compensation strategies to minimize the relative disadvantage of visual search in their blind hemifields. For changes in overall visual search times between the preoperative and the six-month follow-up examination, we could demonstrate overlapping effects of (a) deterioration by hemianopia and (b) amelioration by improved processing speed as part of the cognitive improvements achieved by amelioration of the epilepsy.

Visual search in vibration environments: Effects of spatial ability, stimulus size and stimulus density

Visual search is one type of common encountered human-computer interaction tasks, but it has less been examined in vibration environments. The aim of this study was to examine the effects of one user characteristic (spatial ability) and two stimulus characteristics (i.e., stimulus size and stimulus density) on visual search performance during single- and double-target tasks in simulated vibration environments. Twenty-four participants attended an experiment where they were instructed to perform single- and double-target visual search tasks with varied levels of stimulus size and stimulus density under static, slight and moderate vibration environments, respectively. Results indicated that the two vibration conditions achieved comparable visual search performance, perceived visual fatigue, and perceived comfort with static condition across task types. Stimuli size and stimulus density yielded significant effects on visual search time in both single- and double-target tasks (p's < 0.001). Participants with high spatial ability were faster than those with low spatial ability in double-target tasks (p = 0.042). Users preferred interface design with medium-to-large stimulus size and low-to-medium stimulus density in visual search.

The clinical effectiveness of Eye-Search therapy for patients with hemianopia, neglect or hemianopia and neglect

ABSTRACT We investigated the clinical effectiveness of Eye-Search, a web-based therapy app designed to improve visual search times, in a large group of patients with either hemianopia, neglect or both hemianopia and neglect. A prospective, interventional cohort design was used. For the main, impairment-based outcome measure (average visual search time), the within-subject control was affected vs. unaffected side. Four hundred and twenty-six participants who fitted the inclusion criteria completed all 4 time points (1200 therapy trials). We found a significant three-way interaction between therapy, side and group. Eye-Search therapy improved search times to the affected visual field of patients with either hemianopia alone or neglect and hemianopia, but not those with neglect alone. Effect sizes were moderate to large and consistent with previous studies. We found a similar significant interaction between therapy and group for the patient-reported outcome measure “finding things” that most closely matched the impairment-based outcome (visual search). Eye-Search therapy improves both impairment-based and patient-reported outcome measures related to visual search in patients with hemianopia alone or hemianopia and neglect.

Preference for Lighting Chromaticity in Migraine With Aura.

We studied the color of lighting chosen as comfortable for reading by individuals with migraine and controls. We explored the effects of the chosen color on visual performance. It has been reported that individuals who experience migraine with aura (MWA) choose, as comfortable for reading, light that is more strongly saturated in color than that chosen by individuals without migraine. A convenience sample of 18 individuals who experienced MWA, 18 without aura, and 18 controls without migraine participated in a cross-sectional laboratory study at Anglia Ruskin University. We used an Intuitive Colorimeter that illuminated text with colored light and permitted the separate control of hue (color) and saturation (strength of color) without a change in luminance. We selected individuals with migraine and healthy controls from the general population. They were headache-free in the 48hours prior to testing. We used a routine that permitted the selection of the most comfortable hue from 12 alternatives and then alternately optimized the saturation and hue using small changes, thereby allowing for color adaptation. Visual performance at a word search task was measured under white light and under light of a color chosen as comfortable, using colored lenses. Healthy individuals chose light with chromaticity close to the Planckian locus, which approximates the chromaticities of daylight and most electric lighting. The distance from the locus averaged 0.029 (SD 0.021). Individuals who experienced MWA chose strongly saturated colors well away from the Planckian locus (average distance 0.056, SD 0.022). Individuals who experienced migraine without aura chose intermediate chromaticities (average distance 0.034, SD 0.022). Overall there was a large statistically significant difference between participant groups that explained 24% variance. Visual search time of individuals with migraine aura decreased from 22.5 to 16.8s when light of the chosen color was provided using tinted lenses (the average increase in search speed was 45.7%). The lenses had no statistically significant effect on the performance of individuals without migraine aura. Individuals who experienced MWA selected as comfortable colors that deviated from the lighting typically experienced in everyday life. Possibly, individuals who experience MWA may be more susceptible to photophobia under typical lighting. Visual performance was improved using lenses that provided light of the chosen comfortable color. The spectral power of that choice showed no evident relationship to melanopic energy (energy captured by the intrinsically photosensitive retinal ganglion cells).

Faster recognition of graspable targets defined by orientation in a visual search task.

Peri-hand space is the area surrounding the hand. Objects within this space may be subject to increased visuospatial perception, increased attentional prioritization, and slower attentional disengagement compared to more distal objects. This may result from kinesthetic and visual feedback about the location of the hand that projects from the reach and grasp networks of the dorsal visual stream back to occipital visual areas, which in turn, refines cortical visual processing that can subsequently guide skilled motor actions. Thus, we hypothesized that visual stimuli that afford action, which are known to potentiate activity in the dorsal visual stream, would be associated with greater alterations in visual processing when presented near the hand. To test this, participants held their right hand near or far from a touchscreen that presented a visual array containing a single target object that differed from 11 distractor objects by orientation only. The target objects and their accompanying distractors either strongly afforded grasping or did not. Participants identified the target among the distractors by reaching out and touching it with their left index finger while eye-tracking was used to measure visual search times, target recognition times, and search accuracy. The results failed to support the theory of enhanced visual processing of graspable objects near the hand as participants were faster at recognizing graspable compared to non-graspable targets, regardless of the position of the right hand. The results are discussed in relation to the idea that, in addition to potentiating appropriate motor responses, object affordances may also potentiate early visual processes necessary for object recognition.

How does map use differ in virtual reality and desktop-based environments?

ABSTRACT Maps based on virtual reality (VR) are evolving and are being increasingly used in the field of geography. However, the advantages of VR based on the map use processes of users over desktop-based environments (DEs) are not fully understood. In this study, an experiment was conducted in which 120 participants performed map use tasks using maps and globes in VR and DE. The participants’ eye movements and questionnaires were collected to compare the map use performance differences. We analyzed the general metrics, information searching and processing metrics of participants (e.g. response time, RT; average fixation duration, AFD; average saccade duration, ASD; saccade frequency, SF, etc.) using maps and globes in different environments. We found that the participants using VR processed information more efficiently (AFDDE = 233.34 ms, AFDVR = 173.09 ms), and the participants using DE had both a significantly shorter response time (RTDE = 88.68 s, RTVR = 124.05 s) and a shorter visual search time (ASDDE = 60.78 ms, ASDVR = 112.13 ms; SFDE = 6.30, SFVR = 2.07). We also found similarities in accuracy, satisfaction and readability. These results are helpful for designing VR maps that can adapt to human cognition and reflect the advantages of VR.