Visual Evaluation Of Soil Structure Research Articles

Conservative farming systems and their effects on soil organic carbon and structural quality

Pesticides-free integrated farming systems emerge as a viable option to promote environmental protection, due to the diversification of the agroecosystem, making the soil productive and resilient. However, there is a lack of information about the influence of integration farming systems on the relationship between soil physical quality and organic matter. The objective was to determine soil organic carbon fractions, and soil structural attributes in conservative single and integrated farming systems, to verify the potential of these farming systems to increase soil organic carbon stocks and improve soil structural quality. The experiment was carried out at a pesticide-free agricultural systems. Soil samples were collected in three layers (0–0.05, 0.05–0.10, and 0.10–0.20 m) of five farming systems (Cropland - C, Livestock - L, Forestry - F, Livestock-Forestry – LF, and Crop-Livestock-Forestry - CLF) in the randomized block design. Sampling was carried out in two transects of 25 m each, collecting five samples per transect, totaling 10 samples per layer. The following soil attributes were determined: soil organic carbon (SOC), particulate organic carbon (POC), mineral-associated organic carbon (MAOC), soil organic carbon stocks (Cst), visual evaluation of soil structure (VESS), tensile strength of aggregates (TS), soil friability, weighted mean diameter (WMD), geometric mean diameter (GMD) and the aggregate stability index (ASI). At 0–0.05 m, the SOC content was up to 12% higher in the Cropland system compared to other farming systems, while at 0.05–0.10 m and 0.10–0.20 m of depth, the difference was higher, around 27% between Cropland and other farming systems. For the VESS, Cropland had the lowest score (1.35), while the higher scores were in the Forestry, and CLF systems (2.25, 2.24, respectively). Both soil organic carbon and soil physical quality were greater in all farming systems. The particulate organic carbon and weighted mean diameter were efficiently to promote changes in soil carbon inputs and structural changes. The single and integrated farming systems promoted an increase in soil organic carbon, by a rate of 3.02, 1.81, 2.17, 1.78, and 2.01 Mg ha−1 yr−1, respectively for Cropland, Livestock, Forestry, LF, and CLF. The pesticide-free farming systems, under conservative practices, were very promising in showing the increase of SOC, POC and MAOC, supporting the soil physical quality, and cooperating with the soil health.

Visual evaluation of soil structure is a reliable method to detect changes in the soil quality of Colombian Amazon pasturelands

AbstractThe visual evaluation of soil structure (VESS) is an affordable and easy‐to‐use method for assessing soil quality that could help in the early detection of soil quality changes in pasturelands of less developed countries where ranchers cannot afford quantitative soil studies. Here, we assessed the soil quality of three pasture areas in the Colombian Amazon region using the VESS method and tested its suitability through a correlation analysis with key physical and biochemical soil indicators of quality measured at the same study locations. Moreover, by integrating all assessed soil indicators, we determined a soil quality index (SQI) to correlate with VESS scores. A forest area was used as a reference to evaluate changes in soil indicators and soil quality due to pasture use for >25 years. Our results revealed high VESS scores, indicating poor soil quality in pasture areas and suggesting a compaction process that starts at 6.5 cm soil depth, corroborated by increases in soil bulk density, soil resistance to penetration, and reduction in soil porosity. Soil C and N contents were 35% and 33% lower in pasture than forest. This same pattern was observed in the geometric mean of the enzymatic activity. The VESS scores were significantly correlated with most of physical and biochemical soil indicators and with the overall SQI, demonstrating the ability of VESS to integrate and reflect attributes related to the essential physical, chemical, and biological functioning of soils from the Colombian Amazon region, becoming a useful tool for detecting signs of soil quality degradation in pasturelands.

Soil physical quality response to management systems in a long‐term sugarcane trial

AbstractIn order to support sugarcane growth for biofuel production without compromising the environmental sustainability, this work aims to assess the physical quality of soils cultivated under different long‐term tillage and management systems to identify the system that most contributes for a sustainable sugarcane production. Visual assessments and soil sampling to determine physical soil quality indicators were performed in sugarcane plots managed with no‐tillage (NT) and conventional tillage (CT) with 0 (CT0–NT0) and 4 (CT4–NT4) Mg ha−1 of lime and in an adjoining area with native forest. In general, the results from traditional indicators showed no statistical difference between the different sugarcane cultivation systems and the different depths, so were not sensitive to identify the best tillage and management system in relation to soil physical quality for soils cultivated with sugarcane. However, even without statistical difference, three indicators presented limiting values for plant growth and development (Bd, ASW, and S index) in at least two sugarcane cultivation systems and one depth. Although all the systems showed a good soil structural quality in surface, the visual assessments suggest a poor and unsatisfactory soil structural quality in the subsurface of CT0, CT4, and NT0 (3.7 ± 0.2, 3.3 ± 0.6, and 3.7 ± 0.7 in Visual Evaluation of Soil Structure [VESS] and 2.2 ± 0.3, 3.1 ± 1.0, and 3.6 ± 1.1 in Rapid Diagnosis of Soil Structure [DRES], respectively), requiring immediate management changes, while structural quality in NT4 (2.6 ± 0.9 and 3.9 ± 0.7, in VESS and DRES, respectively) was considered good. Thus, NT4 is suggested as the tillage and management system that least compromises structural quality of soils cultivated with sugarcane, and it is considered a viable alternative to promote soil conservation, as well as environmental and economical sustainability for sugarcane cultivation, as this system corrects soil acidity, minimally disturbs the soil, and maintains the soil cover, thus delivering ecosystem services.

Soil Tillage and Cropping System Effects on the Physical-Hydric Properties of a Soil under No-Tillage

A no-tillage system (NT) is an alternative to replace soil management with intense soil tillage and degradation. Our objective was to evaluate the physical–hydric properties of soil under NT for four years after undergoing 13 years of minimum (4NTM) and conventional tillage (4NTC) with reference to continuous NT for 17 years (17NT). The soil bulk density, porosity, storage capacities of water and air, visual evaluation of soil structure (VESS), and saturated hydraulic conductivity were determined. The root dry biomass of soybean, maize, and palisade grass was also measured. NT during four years established after receiving 13 years of tillage did not significantly affect soil properties compared to 17NT, which means that four years of NT reached structural stability similar to continuous 17NT. The VESS scores were less sensitive to identifying soil compaction. Crops have no significative influence on soil properties, but the roots of maize seem to be less sensitive to soil compaction, which is important considering it is in a crop rotation system. The treatments (soil tillage and crop rotation) presented soil compaction below a 10 cm depth, and to our loamy textural class soil, a Bd > 1.60 Mg m−3 restricted soil aeration due to macroporosity < 0.10 m3 m−3.

Assessing soil structural quality as an indicator of productivity under semi-arid climate

A near real-time evaluation of the management system's impact on soil conditions requires a quick and straightforward framework to help farmers with a reliable on-farm assessment. The visual soil evaluation methods can potentially be used as a reliable on-farm approach for assessing soil physical quality. This research aims to better understand the importance of visual soil evaluation for productivity in semi-arid climates. The objectives were to evaluate the ability of Visual Evaluation of Soil Structure (VESS) and Double Spade (DS) under agricultural systems in a semi-arid region and to assess the relationship between soil structural quality and crop yield. Forty arable sites under rain-fed and irrigated farming with crop rotation and mono-cropping systems were studied, and twenty-one physical and bio-chemical soil properties were determined at two depths (0–20 cm and 20–40 cm). VESS and DS were conducted at each farm. The reliability of visual approaches was evaluated using measured soil properties and their capability to detect the impact of management systems. Soil quantitative measurements and crop yield information were deployed to assess soil productivity and its relationship with soil physical quality. The overall assessment of soil properties indicated a better soil condition for irrigated farming with crop rotation. The visual scores were in a range of 1.5–3.4 for VESS and a range of 1.9–3.5 for DS. The mean scores of VESS and DS were different between rain-fed and irrigated farms (P < 0.05), and visual methods were able to differentiate between mono-cropping and crop rotation (P < 0.05). The best soil structural quality was associated with the highest level of crop yield, and visual approaches were able to detect the differences in wheat yield levels (P < 0.05). The scores of VESS and DS were significantly correlated with soil properties (r > 0.6). Both VESS and DS indicated good efficiency for a practical on-farm assessment of soil conditions under agricultural management in northwest Iran and similar ecosystems. A close relationship between crop yield and soil structural quality was obtained, which indicated that the optimum soil structural condition plays an important role in the sustainability of crop production in semi-arid cultivation.

Visual evaluation of soil structure in low‐intensity land use systems of steppe zone of Ukraine

AbstractThe network of natural forests and shelterbelts is a crucial element of agroforestry systems for the efficient and environmentally sustainable land use in Ukraine. From 2016 to 2021, we studied the quality of black soils structure under steppe wildland herbaceous vegetation, man‐made tree plantations of Robinia pseudoacacia L. and Quercus robur L., and native forest vegetation of ravines and floodplains in the steppe zone of Ukraine. According to the visual evaluation of soil structure (VESS) scores, the content of the agronomically valuable fraction (AVF), soil organic carbon (SOC) and earthworm casts, native forest soils (Chernozems and Phaeozems) had a significantly (p &lt; .05) higher soil structural quality in 0–25 cm layer as compared with the Chernozems under the steppe vegetation and shelterbelt plantations. In the conditions of steppe landscapes, VESS methods were shown to provide efficient diagnostics to differentiate the black soil structural quality of low‐intensity land use systems, that is steppe wildlands, shelterbelts, native forests: VESS indicators significantly (p &lt; .05) correlated with quantitative characteristics of soil structure. The most significant dependence was found between VESS parameters and earthworm casts content. The need to improve VESS method was demonstrated, that is to assign higher weight to the earthworm bioturbation process as one of the key indicators of soil structural quality.

Unearthing Soil Structure Dynamics under Long-Term No-Tillage System in Clayey Soils

Soil structure is a sensitive and dynamic soil physical property that responds rapidly to different tillage systems, and thus it requires constant monitoring and evaluation. The visual evaluation of soil structure (VESS) and subsoil visual evaluation of soil structure (SubVESS) methods were used to assess the soil structure quality of clayey soils subjected to different tillage systems. The tillage systems were no-tillage (NT) and conventional tillage (CT), with virgin fields (VGs) used as controls. The study was conducted at Tshivhilwi and Dzingahe in Thohoyandou, Vhembe District, Limpopo Province, South Africa. The soil structure quality at Tshivhilwi, as determined by VESS and SubVESS, was found to be poor. However, at Dzingahe, both the VESS and SubVESS scores responded to the impact of tillage. VESS showed a fair (Sq = 2.25) soil structural quality in the NT system, poor quality (Sq = 3.57) in the CT system and moderately poor quality (Sq = 3.05) in the VG. Similarly, at the same location, the SubVESS scores were moderately good in the NT system, moderately poor for the CT system and fair in the VG. The differences in the responses of VESS and SubVESS at the two locations were attributed to differences in the duration of the NT system. The VESS and SubVESS results were supported by selected measured soil physico-chemical properties such as bulk density and porosity. In conclusion, the findings of this study showed that VESS and SubVESS were able to effectively differentiate between the impacts of tillage systems on soil structural quality. The soil structure quality was better under NT than CT at Tshivhilwi and Dzingahe.

Dynamics of soil properties as impacted by contrasting lithology, slope class, and land use types: a case study in semi-arid highlands of northern Ethiopia.

Soil characterization is crucial in creating sustainable platforms for land users to identify areas vulnerable to anthropogenic activities. This study was conducted to investigate the impacts of lithology, slope, and land use on soil properties of a semi-arid highland in northern Ethiopia. Disturbed and undisturbed soil samples collected from 0 to 30 cm depth were analyzed. Most of the assessed physical and biochemical soil properties varied significantly (p < 0.05) with lithology, slope class, and land use type. Shale-originated soils were richer in nutrients than soils of other lithologies. A decrease in slope gradient accounted for an increase in most soil properties, while a reverse trend was observed for sand content, bulk density (BD), water stable aggregates (WSA), mean weight diameter (MWD), structural stability index (SSI), soil organic carbon (SOC), total nitrogen (TN), and available phosphorus (AP). Silt and clay fractions, total porosity, moisture content at field capacity and wilting point, visual evaluation of soil structure, pH, electrical conductivity, calcium carbonate, exchangeable bases, cation exchange capacity, and percent base saturation were found to be higher for cultivated land soils compared to grass land and shrub land soils. Shrub land soils, in contrast, had higher WSA, MWD, SSI, SOC, TN, and AP relative to grass land and cultivated land soils. In summary, slope class and land use type stood out as the major drivers influencing the dynamics and distribution of soil properties other than lithology and their interactions in semi-arid highlands of northern Ethiopia. Thus, from sustainability point of view and in the light of their nutrient retention capability and limitation, more attention should be paid toward ensuring periodic assessment and sustainable management of soils in steep cultivated lands.

Effect of controlled traffic on maintaining physical soil quality in sugarcane fields under different crop management systems

ABSTRACT Soil structure has a significant impact on sugarcane production. This research evaluated the effects of controlled traffic on soil physical quality (SPQ). The following four management systems (MS) were evaluated: rainfed sugarcane cultivation and the application of vinasse (RV); irrigated sugarcane cultivation (I); irrigated sugarcane cultivation and application of vinasse (IV), and native vegetation (no sugarcane or irrigation; NV) as a reference. Soil samples were collected within sugarcane rows (WR) and between rows (BR) (used exclusively for agricultural machinery traffic) from mini-trenches for visual evaluation of soil structure (VESS) based on a scale from 1 to 5. Disturbed and undisturbed soil samples were collected for measuring indicators of SPQ.All SPQ variables differed (p < 0.05) between WR and BR, demonstrating the efficiency of controlled machinery traffic for SPQ. None of the managements systems reached the critical limit of 2.0 MPa for soil resistance penetration. The average of saturated hydraulic conductivity for WR were 220.2 mm h−1, 126.8 mm h−1, and 49.4 mm h−1 to IV, I e RV, respectively. SPQ followed the order: NV > IV > I > RV. The VESS was efficient for estimating SPQ and the scores were below 3.0 in all crop management systems.

Relationships between the Visual Evaluation of Soil Structure (VESS) and soil properties in agriculture: A meta-analysis

The objective of this study was to analyze the relationships between the Visual Evaluation of Soil Structure (VESS) and soil properties that make its adoption widely used in agriculture. For this, 25 papers related to the VESS (2009-2022) were considered where the information of the authors, the soil property: bulk density (BD), total soil porosity (TP), soil penetration resistance (PR), macroporosity, microporosity, soil organic carbon (SOC), and mean weight diameter of stable aggregates (MWD). The sample size (n=120 cases), and the correlation coefficient were extracted. To measure this relationship, the correlation coefficient of all studies was contemplated. A meta-analysis was carried out to obtain a global measure of the correlation between the VESS and soil properties across the studies. In the first instance, a fixed effects model was fitted for the correlation (effect size, known as the response variable in the meta-analysis). Subsequently, a random effects model was fitted for the correlation, followed by a subgroup analysis according to soil properties, due to the presence of high heterogeneity between studies. The overall effect (average correlation coefficient) of the fitted random effects model was 0.31 with a confidence interval (CI) of [0.22;0.41]. The heterogeneity between studies was high ( =94.0%) and statistically significant p&lt;0.001. Although it is moderate, the average correlation in practical terms may be sufficient. There were significant differences in some average correlations of some categories, such as BD, PR, TP, and microporosity. The weights reported for the BD, SOC, and PR were 29.7%, 16.4%, and 14.2%, respectively. This result evidenced that the greatest contribution to the global effect of correlation between VESS and soil properties is provided by BD.

Visual assessment of soil structural quality across soil textures and compaction levels – Part I: Examination of intact soil cores

Soil structural degradation has become very common and leads to a serious decline in soil health. Improving or maintaining soil structure is key to build resilience against drought and flooding, and thus contributes to assuring food and water security. Quantification of soil structural quality is usually accomplished by traditional laboratory-based methods, which are time-, labour- and money-consuming. Visual soil evaluation and examination methods comprise rapid and simple tests that offer a numeric semi-quantitative assessment of soil structure. The common criteria are aggregate size and shape, ease of break or rupture resistance, and inter- or intra-aggregate porosity. In this study, the CoreVESS method, a variant of the Visual Evaluation of Soil Structure (VESS) method originally developed for topsoil assessment, was applied on 250 cm3 undisturbed soil core samples. Resulting soil quality scores (Sq, ranging between 1, good, and 5, poor) were compared with soil quality indicators (SQi) derived from traditional quantitative methods of soil structure analysis. Tested SQi’s included penetration resistance, bulk density, soil hydraulic properties, soil organic carbon and texture (percentage of clay, silt and sand). The objective of the study was to assess and quantify the state of soil structural degradation induced by agricultural operations using a suite of methods of analysis at a regional scale, with a special focus on CoreVESS. Soil core samples were taken in Belgium from 42 cropped fields, at two positions (headland and in-field zone) and from three layers, notably the ploughed topsoil (TOP, 10–20 cm), the compacted subsoil (CSUB, 30–40 cm) and the deeper subsoil (SUB, 60–70 cm), totalling the sample horizons to 252. Test and sampling sites comprised all major soil texture classes within the Belgian soil textural triangle and varied from sand to heavy clay. In-field positions (IN-FIELD) showed significantly better coreVESS-based Sq scores as compared to headland positions (HEAD), with the CSUB layers always exhibiting significantly lower quality than the other two layers. Laboratory-derived soil quality indicator (SQi) values portrayed the same trend, with CSUB layers always indicating the poorest soil quality. Significant differences in SQi’s were also found between soils of acceptable (Sq ≤ 3) and degraded (Sq > 3) structure. Likewise, grouping soils into the same categories resulted in significant differences in the soil water retention and hydraulic conductivity curves in their wet ranges. There were good significant relationships between the SQi values and CoreVESS-based Sq scores, with for example Pearson R correlation coefficients of 0.64 for both penetration resistance and bulk density. Also, Sq scores related well with an SQi-based soil quality index (SQI) value averaged per layer and texture class (Pearson R of 0.60). The study confirmed that agricultural operations and their intensity clearly affect soil structural quality across various soil textures, with CoreVESS being as responsive to variation in soil structure quality as traditional quantitative methods, even when applied in the subsoil. VESS methods thus have a potential for monitoring soil structural quality over a variety of textures in a rapid, intuitive, practical and cheap way, as an alternative for or being complementary to more expensive labour-intensive traditional quantitative methods.

Visual assessment of soil structural quality across soil textures and compaction levels – Part II: Examination of profile walls vs Intact soil cores

Visual Evaluation of Soil Structure (VESS) methods receive increasing attention and are gaining popularity. Since in modern agriculture, soil structure degradation becomes very common, it is essential to protect and improve soil structure quality. Methods that enable its straightforward monitoring are therefore needed. Numerous visual soil evaluation techniques that serve this purpose exist, and are varying in objective, evaluation depth (topsoil/subsoil), evaluation method, number of criteria assessed and their final scoring. In this study, we mainly focus on three VESS methods, two of which were employed in the field along a profile wall (Visual Evaluation of Subsoil Structure, SubVESS, and Double Spade VESS method, DSVESS), and one in the laboratory on soil cores (CoreVESS). The main aim of this research was to test and compare these VESS-based methods in terms of their feasibility and repeatability in detecting soil structure degradation in the topsoil and subsoil. Sixteen cropped fields were chosen in Belgium covering six of seven major soil texture classes according to the Belgian soil textural triangle (i.e., sand, loamy sand, light sandy loam, silt loam, clay, and heavy clay). SubVESS and DSVESS were performed in the same pits until 80 cm and 40 cm, respectively. Soil cores for CoreVESS and for the determination of soil quality indicators (SQi) with conventional laboratory methods were taken from three layers, that is, the ploughed topsoil (∼10–∼20 cm, “TOP”), the compacted subsoil (∼30–∼40 cm, “CSUB”), and the deeper subsoil (∼60–∼70 cm, “SUB”), totalling 96 horizons. While SubVESS and CoreVESS were originally developed to evaluate subsoil and topsoil, respectively, they were thus used here beyond those zones. Moreover, all sampling and field evaluation was done at two positions per field - the more compacted headland and the less compacted in-field zone. It was shown that the soil quality (Sq) scores assigned to the cores with CoreVESS were not significantly influenced by operators with different backgrounds but all having received basic VESS training. When comparing field and laboratory results, positive relationships were found between Sq scores of SubVESS, DSVESS and CoreVESS. All VESS methods were able to assign significantly better soil quality (lower scores) at in-field positions (IN-FIELD) as compared to headland positions (HEAD), and significantly lower quality (higher scores) to CSUB layers than to the other two layers. Laboratory-derived SQi values presented a similar trend, with CSUB layers always indicating worse situations. There were good significant relationships between the SQi values and the different VESS-based Sq scores as well, with DSVESS showing the best correlations among the three VESS methods. The study thus confirmed that the different VESS methods all have a potential for monitoring soil structure quality in a fast, cheap, intuitive and practical way, although they all have their own advantages and disadvantages. Additionally, those methods that were employed at depths other than those for which they were developed did perform well.

Cover crop management practices to promote soil health and climate adaptation: Grappling with varied success from farmer and researcher observations.

Soil health is a pathway through which farm and environmental outcomes can be improved together on agricultural landscapes, and management to improve soil health is increasingly recognized as a strategy for agricultural producers to adapt to climate change-related impacts such as erosion and flooding. Many incentive programs exist or are in development to support the adoption of practices that promote soil health for these reasons, but few on-farm trials have compared the intersections of farmer versus researcher observations of soil health or of soil health compared with climate adaptation. The purpose of our study was to assess soil health outcomes and adaptation to simulated climate change in response to cover cropping on working farms enrolled in a Minnesota Natural Resources Conservation Service (NRCS)-funded Environmental Quality Incentives Program. This incentive program required the inclusion of diverse cover crop mixtures into existing farm crop rotations. We conducted farmer surveys, NRCS protocol field soil assessments, and NRCS-recommended laboratory assays on farms from across the state of Minnesota in a paired design comparing fields on the same or adjacent farms of the same soil mapping unit. Although 85% of farmers reported improvements in soil attributes or productivity, most field and laboratory assessments produced a high amount of variability in responsiveness to cover cropping. Despite this variability, we saw a significant decrease in bare ground and significant increases in earthworm counts, cellobiohydrolase microbial activity, and the Visual Evaluation of Soil Structure (VESS). Although researcher measurements did not show improvement in physical characteristics or infiltration other than the VESS field assessment, 67% of farmers reported improvements to the physical structure of the soil, associated with improved outcomes such as earlier planting dates and consistent crop growth across fields. When more than five species of cover crops were present, the percentage of reported improvements increased to >80%. We also found no significant improvement to climate change adaptation measured by nutrient or sediment loss after a simulated storm event. Together, our results suggest that adding a diverse annual cover crop mix to increase continuous cover can improve characteristics associated with soil health and that there needs to be a stronger focus in understanding variation in realized soil health outcomes on farms, including more co-creation of research with farmer partners.

Assessment of the impact of conventional and organic agroecosystems management options and conservation tillage on soil fertility at the Montepaldi Long Term Experiment, Tuscany

Fertility is a characteristic of an agroecosystem which is usually and promptly identified with the crop yield. Nevertheless, it can be considered the result of many processes and factors such as climatic, edaphic and agronomic which cannot be extended and generalized to all systems and crops. This study evaluates the effects on soil fertility as influenced by organic (OR) and high-input (conventional, CO) management combined with three tillage systems, i.e., plowing (plw), chisel plowing (chp) and disk harrowing (dsh) at the Montepaldi Long Term Experiment (MoLTE), Tuscany, Italy. Fertility was evaluated through the following indicators: i) chemical (Olsen P, Kjeldahl N and, OM); ii) physical (bulk density on clods and cores, pore size distribution, penetrometry, aggregate stability, soil profile assessment, VESS, i.e. visual evaluation of soil structure); iii) biological (earthworm abundance and root distribution). As regards the effect of management, CO was higher in crop yields, available P2O5, bulk densities (clods), aggregate stability and soil penetration resistance, while OR was higher in bulk densities (cores). Nevertheless, the effect of management was observed for root distribution as a function of depth, where roots explored larger portions of soil in OR profiles. Regarding tillage, the order plw, chp, dsh was characterized by an increase in soil penetration resistance and number of earthworms. Moreover, a relationship with time was found for earthworm abundance, where the OR system exhibited a higher and constant population. Organic management seems to achieve a long-lasting soil fertility. In the MoLTE experiment results suggest that available P2O5, bulk density (clods), aggregate stability, soil penetration resistance, time-related earthworm abundance, root distribution and yields are the most informative on the impact of management and tillage options. Furthermore, results of physical and biological fertility indicators support the hypothesis that significant differences between OR and CO management, even if not observed in topsoil, might be detected in deeper soil layers, below 30cm.

Soil Structural Quality and Relationships With Root Properties in Single and Integrated Farming Systems

Single farming systems (SFS) such as monocultures may negatively affect soil structural quality. This study tested the hypothesis that integrated farming systems (IFS), i.e., the combination of cropping and forestry and/or livestock farming, improves soil structural quality, root development and soil organic carbon. An experimental area was set up in 2012 at the Canguiri experimental farm belonging to the Federal University of Paraná, Southern Brazil. The soils are predominantly Ferralsols. The experimental treatments representing different farming systems, organized in a random block design with three replicates, were: Forestry (F), Conventional Crop Production (C), Livestock (L), and integrated Crop-Forestry (CF), Crop-Livestock (CL), Livestock-Forestry (LF), and Crop-Livestock-Forestry (CLF). In situ measurements and sampling were carried out in the 0–0.3 m layer during summer 2019/20, and included soil penetration resistance (PR), soil structural quality based on visual evaluation of soil structure (SqVESS scores), root length (RL), root volume (RV) and soil organic carbon content (SOC). Soil structural quality, penetration resistance, root length and volume, and SOC varied between farming systems, but no significant differences were found between single (C, L, F) and integrated farming systems (CF, CL, LF, CLF). The single system Forestry (F) and the integrated systems including forestry (LF, CF, CLF) tended to have higher SqVESS scores, i.e. poorer soil structural quality, and higher PR, which we associate with the generally drier soil conditions that are due to higher soil water uptake and higher interception and reduce the frequency of wetting-drying cycles. Roots were concentrated in the shallow soil layer (0–0.1 m depth), and this was especially pronounced in the Crop (C) single farming system. Based on the measured values, our results suggest an acceptable soil structural quality in all farming systems. Our data revealed strong, significant relationships between soil structural quality, penetration resistance, root growth and SOC, demonstrating that improvements in soil structure results in lower soil penetration resistance, higher root volumes and higher SOC, and vice versa. Soil PR was positively correlated with SqVESS (R2 = 0.84), indicating that better soil structural quality resulted in lower soil mechanical resistance. This, in turn, increased root length and volume, which increases carbon input to soil and therefore increases SOC in the long run.

Soil structure changes induced by tillage and reduction of machinery traffic on sugarcane – A diversity of assessment scales

Conventional tillage disturbs soil structure, increasing the soil’s susceptibility to compaction by machinery traffic in sugarcane fields. In this sense, the adoption of reduced tillage or no-tillage practices associated with traffic control has been proposed to preserve the functionality of soil structure, thus reducing soil compaction and plant growth restrictions. A long-term sugarcane experiment was carried out to evaluate the effects of conventional and reduced tillage practices with random and without machinery traffic on soil structure in southeastern Brazil. The soil structural quality was evaluated using a diversity of assessment scales, including on-farm Visual Evaluation of Soil Structure (VESS) in the “macroscale”, aggregate stability (e.g., mean weight diameter-MWD) in the “mesoscale” and 2D micro-morphometric image analysis (size and shape of pores, and total pore area) in the “microscale”. The conventional tillage and reduced tillage with random traffic treatments showed a similar soil structure after the fourth-cycle of sugarcane ratoon in the macro (i.e., VESS Sq), meso (i.e., MWD), and micro scale (shape and total pore area). However, the reduced tillage without traffic improved soil structure (e.g., lower VESS Sq, higher total pore area, and greater percentage of complex pores) when compared to the treatments with random traffic in the 0–10 cm soil layer. While conventional tillage does not bring additional benefits in alleviating soil compaction compared to reduced tillage, the preservation of soil structure under reduced tillage is conditioned by the adoption of traffic-free seedbed zones. A diversity of assessment scales showed that different methods and scales are related to specific soil functions and have a distinct objective, but it is an advisable strategy to assess the soil structural quality.

Assessing soil properties in various agroforestry lands in Kuningan District, West Java, Indonesia using Visual Evaluation of Soil Structure (VESS)

Abstract. Purnama TJ, Wijayanto N, Wasis B. 2022. Assessing soil properties in various agroforestry lands in Kuningan District, West Java, Indonesia using Visual Evaluation of Soil Structure (VESS). Biodiversitas 23: 3012-3021. Land conversion from the forest into intensive agriculture and plantation causes soil degradation. Agroforestry is promoted as a win-win solution to land management that conserves and improves soil quality using a tree-based farming system. This study aimed to evaluate the physical soil quality of various land-use patterns, including agroforestry in Kuningan District, West Java. In doing so, we employed the Visual Evaluation of Soil Structure (VESS) method to be compared with laboratory analysis. Soil physical quality of seven land-use types was evaluated, namely natural forest, complex agroforestry of coffee, complex agroforestry of galangal, simple agroforestry of coffee, simple agroforestry of sweet potato, coffee monoculture and maize monoculture. The VESS technique was used to assess the quality of soil structure, whereas the conventional soil analysis method was used to determine soil bulk density and porosity. Other soil properties including soil organic carbon, cation-exchange capacity (CEC), pH, and soil macrofauna and mesofauna as well as dry litter weight, vegetation composition and individuals’ density were also obtained. The results of the VESS method (reflected as Sq value) revealed that the soil physical quality varied, ranging from Sq value of 1.16-3.1. Complex agroforestry of galangal had Sq value of 1.56 which was not significantly different from that of natural forest land (Sq 1.16), implying that both land uses had a similar physical soil quality. The VESS score and the soil property parameters have a reasonable correlation (r) (BD = 0.80, soil porosity = -0.80, SOC = -0.88, CEC = 0.89, diversity of fauna soil index = 0.82). This study shows that a multi-strata agroforestry system can be a strategy for recovering soil quality on degraded lands, and the VESS method can be used to analyze soil quality in these areas.

Degree of compactness and soil quality of peach orchards with different production ages

Peach production is of great economic importance to Brazil. In 2020, over 201 ton of the fruit was harvested in the country, generating a production value of approximately R$456 million. In order to enhance peach productivity, it is necessary to improve soil physical quality in the orchards. Therefore, the aim of this study was to evaluate the degree of compactness, water infiltration rate, as well as perform the visual evaluation of soil structure (VESS) in different sampling positions of three peach producing commercial orchards of different ages in southern Brazil. The results showed that the rows of the orchards had lower values of degree of compactness, soil structural quality score (Sq) and higher infiltration rate, and differed from the interrow and wheeled interrow sampling positions. Regarding orchard age, there was no difference between then. The use of cover crops, maintenance of spontaneous plants in the interrows and the branches from the yearly pruning placed on the interrows, harvesting manually, and opting for using a compact tractor, may be contributing to avoid soil compaction and probably soil erosion, and maintaining soil physical quality in the wheeled interrow and interrow, even in the older orchards. The degree of compactness, soil structural quality score and water infiltration are aligned with each other and with bulk density, macroporosity and total porosity, and were good indicators to identify differences in soil structure in the orchards.

The Use of Visual Evaluation of Soil Structure (VESS) Method to Assess Soil Quality: Review

The Use of Visual Evaluation of Soil Structure (VESS) Method to Assess Soil Quality: Review

Macrofauna communities and their relationship with soil structural quality in different land use systems

Context Soil structural quality (Sq) influences soil water dynamics, greenhouse gas emissions and plant productivity in natural and agricultural environments. Hence, assessing soil structural quality using simple methods is crucial to identifying potential impacts of different land uses. Aims Identify correlations between Sq and macroinvertebrate communities in seven land use systems (LUS). Methods Seven LUS were studied: native mixed ombrophylous forest (NF), native grassland (NG), native grass pasture (NP), Eucalyptus sp. plantation (EP, 20-years-old), no-tillage annual cropping (NT), integrated crop–livestock (ICL) and crop–livestock–forestry (ICLF). Each LUS had three plots and Sq and macrofauna community were evaluated. Sq was assessed through visual evaluation of soil structure (VESS) – a Sq score was assigned to each identified layer. Soil macrofauna were hand-sorted from each of these layers. Soil samples were taken in each LUS to describe selected chemical and physical attributes related to soil quality. Results All LUS had non-degraded soil structure quality (Sq ≤ 3); however, with differences in Sq among LUS mainly in deeper layers. The VESS showed better Sq in NF (1.53) and NP (1.85) compared to the other LUS, with highest Sq scores for ICL and NG. The NP had the largest macrofauna communities (12 183 ind. m−2), comprising mainly termites and earthworms, with taxa richness highest in NF. Conclusions Correlations between soil macrofauna (i.e. total density, termites and other groups) and Sq were observed, demonstrating that larger macrofauna populations were associated with better soil structural quality. Implications Biological indicators, like soil macrofauna, can be easily measured at low cost and linked to visual Sq, facilitating simultaneous assessment of soil physical and biological health.