School Districts In Virginia Research Articles

Contextualizing Multilingual Learner Disproportionality in Special Education: A Mixed-Methods Approach

Background/Context: One of the most complex and systemic challenges U.S. public schools face is the disproportionate identification of multilingual learners in special education. Currently, students with multidimensional identities are often trapped in ambiguous and contradictory education policies and practices that contribute to both under- and over-representation in special education. Given the legacy of racial discrimination in the United States and in Virginia due to its history, students who have multidimensional identities where social categories intersect and interact with power dynamics are more likely to have their needs and outcomes overlooked. Purpose, Objective, Research Question, or Focus of Study: For these reasons, this mixed-methods study, situated within a Virginia school district, built on extent disproportionality research by applying a multilevel model of intersectionality to understand the relationship between social categories (i.e., race/ethnicity, gender, socioeconomic status [SES]), practices, and policies and the disproportionate representation of multilingual learners in special education. We also examined the extent to which multilingual learners are disproportionately over- or under-represented in special education in Virginia, and how disproportionality varies by school level (i.e., grades K–5 for elementary, grades 6–12 for secondary), race/ethnicity, gender, and SES. Research Design: The quantitative findings from phase one were used to focus on one school district to find out how eligibility processes and services are impacted by organizational structures and school and community contexts. Our results demonstrate disparities for multilingual learners with disabilities by race/ethnicity, gender, and SES. Quantitative findings from this study both support and refute what is known in the extant literature about outcomes related to grade level, race/ethnicity, gender, and SES of multilingual learners with disabilities. The qualitative results, however, illustrate how the larger sociopolitical landscape and perceptions of ability/disability shape eligibility processes and outcomes for these students. Our qualitative data provide insight into multilingual learner disproportionality and the role of context and educational practices that contribute to these types of disparities in special education. Conclusions or Recommendations: The implications of these results for future practice, policy, and research are discussed. Generally speaking, this mixed-methods study shows that (1) using intersectional framing in a risk analysis of multilingual learner disproportionality reveals disparities a one-dimensional approach obscures, (2) representation in special education is associated with a multilingual learner’s social categories (i.e., race/ethnicity, gender, SES), and (3) contextual factors impact how multilingual learner eligibility policies and practices are communicated and implemented within schools. The fact that multilingual learner identification with a disability is correlated with social categories suggests that how we address learning challenges may reflect social problems rather than issues related to learning.

Can GIS use in high school bolster college geography enrollments? The impact of the Geospatial Semester

ABSTRACT Recruiting undergraduate students is a significant challenge for undergraduate geography programs. Few students have robust exposure to geography in secondary school and the major has low name recognition for entering first year students. In fact, geography is often a “found” major on many campuses with students coming to the major after a general education course. But, does it need to be this way? Can geography programs take a more proactive role in building a pipeline of prospective students that is not solely tied to supporting AP Human geography teachers? In this paper, we describe an alternative path for university departments to build strong recruiting pathways, sharing the successes and challenges of building the connections and the learning advantages that students gain through early exposure to geospatial technologies. We focus on the Geospatial Semester, a dual enrollment program between James Madison University and participating school districts in Virginia (and beyond) that began in 2005. We share how departments can build a successful partnership with high schools and the process of sustaining such a program within a university setting. We will also describe the research we have done on the learning gains the Geospatial Semester provides to participating students and how extended use of geospatial technology bolters students’ spatial thinking skills.

Debating Equity through Integration: School Officials’ Decision-Making and Community Advocacy During a School Rezoning in Williamsburg, Virginia

We explore puzzling outcomes in a Virginia school district: in 2018, the Williamsburg-James City County School Board voted to redraw attendance boundaries to achieve greater racial and socio-economic integration among its middle schools, yet abandoned similar efforts for high schools. Drawing on Critical Race perspectives, we conducted a content analysis of archival materials, including school board meeting transcripts, to analyze the conditions under which school decision-makers mobilize to enact equity-oriented policy reforms. We found that school board members abandoned high school rezoning in the face of fierce opposition from white, affluent residents who saw school reassignments as a threat to their entitlements to a highly rated school and to their property values. For the middle schools, board members avoided white families’ entitlements, which neutralized opposition, at the same time as strong community advocacy in favor of equity and integration shifted the political landscape. This activated ‘interest convergence’ among school board members supportive of equity and resulted in the approval of middle-school attendance boundaries that produced greater racial and socioeconomic integration. This case underscores the importance of community advocacy for equity-based reforms; however, the scope of these efforts may be limited to changes that do not substantively threaten white parents’ perceived entitlements.

Student Discipline Disparities in Virginia

Large racial disparities in student discipline are thought to be directly contributing to disproportionate minority contact in the juvenile justice system. Little has been done to learn about what acts as a predictor of and gives rise to these disparities. The current research aims to add to this conversation by examining the relationship between racial disparities in reported student offenders, measured using risk ratio, and two budget variables: the proportion of budget going towards diversity inclusion and per-pupil expenditures. Specifically, the research asks: How does spending on specific diversity programs and overall spending on students affect racial disparities in student discipline? A meta-analysis was utilized to answer this question. Data on Black, Hispanic, and White male students with no disabilities were collected from 314 public high schools across 126 school districts in Virginia. To find the correlation between racial disparities in reported student offenders and specific diversity programs as well as overall spending on students, a Pearson’s r test for correlation was conducted. Disparities in student discipline were positively correlated with the proportion of budget going toward diversity inclusion, but this correlation was not statistically significant. On the other hand, disparities in student discipline had a statistically significant positive correlation with per-pupil expenditures. This positive correlation indicates that the wealth of a district acts as a predictor of levels of racial disparity in student discipline. This suggests that the demographics of a district or segregation within a district could contribute to or exacerbate the existence of such disparities.

A data envelopment analysis of West Virginia school districts

West Virginia schools are consistently below the national average on the National Assessment of Educational Progress. Using Data Envelopment Analysis, we estimate the technical efficiency of West Virginia school districts. We find less variation in technical efficiency in West Virginia than in similar studies conducted in other states. This appears to be because of state policy imposing homogeneity of input usage. Due to the limited variation in technical efficiency across districts, we cannot analyze how non-school inputs such as socioeconomic factors affect technical efficiency across districts. Summary statistics organized by county economic status, however, suggest that socioeconomic status plays a role. Our results highlight an important limitation of DEA analysis on schools.

Developing the “Will”: The Relationship between Teachers’ Perceived Policy Legitimacy and Instructional Improvement

Background/Context As part of a nationwide initiative that re-conceptualized teacher evaluation, Virginia issued the Guidelines for Uniform Performance Standards and Evaluation Criteria for Teachers on July 1, 2012; these guidelines marked a significant overhaul of the state's approach to teacher evaluation. Previous studies examined the impact of teacher evaluation policies on student achievement, but there has been little empirical research on factors that lead teachers to change their instructional practices in response to teacher evaluation. Purpose/Objective/Research Question/Focus of Study We focused on an important element of policy implementation: teachers’ perceptions of the legitimacy of teacher evaluation policies. Specifically, we asked: 1) How do teachers’ perceptions of the legitimacy of teacher evaluation policies influence their efforts to improve their instruction? and 2) What school supports are associated with an increase in teachers’ perceived policy legitimacy? Our examination of teachers’ perceived legitimacy of teacher evaluation policies is critically important because individuals’ beliefs affect their willingness to respond to externally initiated reform in productive ways and to generate sustainable changes in instruction. Research Design To examine the potential impact of teachers’ perceived legitimacy of teacher evaluation policies on their instruction and the effects of various supports on teachers’ perceptions, we drew on teacher survey data and teacher evaluation ratings from two school districts in Virginia. We collected two years of teacher survey data, and three years of teacher evaluation ratings. Combining two different data sets, we provided evidence of an association between teachers’ perceived legitimacy of teacher evaluation policies and their instructional practice. Conclusions/Recommendations Our findings indicate that teachers’ perceived legitimacy of evaluation policies is positively correlated with their likelihood of taking actions to improve their instruction. That is, developing teachers’ perceptions of policy legitimacy seems to be a fruitful strategy for promoting changes in instruction. Moreover, teachers’ perceived legitimacy of teacher evaluation policies seems to have a positive relationship with various school supports, such as principal leadership, professional development, and time and resources. “The consequences of even the best planned, best supported, and most promising policy initiatives depend finally on what happens as individuals throughout the policy system interpret and act on them … Policy success depends critically on two broad factors: local capacity and will.” (McLaughlin, 1987, p. 172)

K–12 School Employee Sexual Abuse and Misconduct: An Examination of Policy Effectiveness

ABSTRACT Despite federal and state laws and policies aimed at preventing sexual misconduct by school employees, one in ten American students will experience sexual abuse or misconduct at the hands of a K-12 school employee. To explore why such sexual misconduct continues to occur, this study examined the effectiveness of education policies by investigating whether and how school employees understand these policies, how they are implemented, and how loopholes may undermine their intent. This qualitative case study was conducted in three Virginia school districts and included 46 semi-structured interviews with school district employees and county, state, and federal government employees associated with cases of school employee sexual misconduct, and extensive document analysis of school policies and procedures, laws, and court records. Analyses revealed an absence of policy implementation, demonstrated most seriously by a lack of awareness and understanding of policies among school employees, underreporting, and ineffective data collection. The study also identified a number of loopholes in the implementation of policies, resulting from a mismanaged intergovernmental system. The analysis suggests that understanding and implementation of policies meant to prevent sexual misconduct by school employees are fragmented; this fragmentation may be contributing to the continued prevalence of sexual misconduct by school employees.

A Cafeteria Personnel Intervention to Improve the School Food Environment.

Objective: In this study, we examined the impact of an intervention targeting food service personnel on Smarter Lunchroom adherence in school cafeterias. Methods: This study used a quasi-experimental design, conducted in a Virginia school district serving predominantly African-American children, all eligible for free meals. In 2014-15, cafeteria managers (N = 38) from 43 schools were trained (and tasked with training their staff) on principles of behavioral economics and choice architecture designed to enhance students' food selections via modifications to the cafeteria environment. Booster trainings were conducted in 2015-16. Cafeteria personnel completed post-intervention surveys; trained raters conducted objective cafeteria environment ratings, assessing adherence with Smarter Lunchroom principles, at baseline, post-intervention, and one-year follow-up. Sales data also were examined. Results: Cafeteria personnel were satisfied (3.91 [of 5]±0.70) with the training and confident (4.18±0.52) in their ability to make changes. Overall adherence to Smarter Lunchroom principles increased 6.47% at post-intervention and 6.93% at follow-up (p = .001; partial eta2 = .21-.24), with a corresponding decrease in sugared-beverage sales at post-intervention (p = .001). Conclusions: This environmental-level intervention focused on training cafeteria personnel was associated with increased adherence to Smarter Lunchroom principles, sustained over 2 years. Future research should investigate the impact of this intervention on students' dietary behaviors in a rigorously designed trial.

Multiple Points of Contact: Promoting Rural Postsecondary Preparation through School-Community Partnerships

Formal and informal partnerships between rural schools and their communities can provide a wide range of supports for all students, but particularly those from low-income families. In this analysis of six small rural school districts in Virginia we show how the broad participation of community groups and individuals supports academic achievement as well as preparation and aspirations for postsecondary education. Results demonstrate that school-community partnerships provide multiple points of contact for students that buttress the efforts of school personnel by extended educational opportunities outside the classroom and by meeting the needs of low-income students when parents and teachers are unable to do so.

Supporting Immigrant Families and Rural Schools: The Boundary-Spanning Possibilities of an Adult ESL Program

Purpose: There has been a significant increase in the number of immigrant families moving to rural communities across the United States. Yet limited research exists that explores relationships between immigrant families and schools in these communities. Rural school districts are often challenged by insufficient resources, expertise, and infrastructure to respond. Adult English as a second language (ESL) programs can be valuable partners. This article explores how instructors in a regional adult ESL program supported relationships between immigrant families and schools in a rural Virginia school district. Research Methods: A case study was conducted between 2014 and 2015. Data collection included observations of adult ESL classes; semistructured interviews with adult ESL instructors, parents of school-age children, and school district leaders and teachers; open-ended questions on a parent survey; and documents. Findings: Four interrelated practices of the adult ESL instructors facilitated understanding and communication between immigrant families and K-12 educators. Adult ESL instructors disseminated information, explained cultural norms and expectations, coached family-school interactions, and created opportunities to connect families and educators. Supporting conditions included characteristics of the adult ESL classes, district leadership and sense of urgency, and multilayered relationships of professionals and actions of the adult ESL coordinator. Implications for Practice: Given the right conditions, adult ESL programs can be valuable partners for rural education leaders seeking to strengthen engagement with immigrant families. These programs can facilitate linkages between schools and adult ESL learners who are parents or caregivers and can be a professional development resource for building district capacity to engage with immigrant families.

Supporting the Supporters: Professional Development for Science Coordinators

ABSTRACTWe investigated changes in district science coordinators’ understandings and practices following their participation in a statewide professional development (PD). Participants included 13 male and 34 female science coordinators from 42 different school districts in Virginia. Data included presurvey, postsurvey, and delayed postsurvey responses; follow-up interviews; and observations of the PD and of science coordinators at work in their district. Results indicated that science coordinator understandings about pedagogy and job responsibilities changed following the PD and were aligned with the goals of PD. However, coordinators’ practices following PD did not fully reflect their understandings about pedagogy. Results suggest that PD aligned with a situated learning framework, specifically the components of collaboration and authentic context, supports coordinators in changing their understandings and some of their practices.

The Potential Impact of Structured Read-Aloud on Middle School Reading Achievement

Read-aloud is a technique predominantly utilized at the elementary level. This study was designed to research the effectiveness of this technique at the middle school level, specifically, students who were not receiving special education or additional reading intervention services. For the current investigation, students in two middle schools within the same Virginia school district were assigned to receive the treatment of Structured Read-Aloud or received traditional middle-school reading instruction. These students were tested using the Diagnostic Online Reading Assessment (DORA) both in the fall before the intervention was implemented, and then again in the spring of the same year to assess gains. Results indicate that the use of Read-Aloud instruction had an impact on student DORA scores and implications of the research are considered. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.11591/ijere.v3i3.6463

Structured Read-Aloud In Middle School: The Potential Impact On Reading Achievement

Read-aloud is a technique predominantly utilized at the elementary level. This study was designed to research the effectiveness of this technique at the middle school level, specifically students who were not receiving special education or additional reading intervention services. For the current investigation, students in two middle schools within the same Virginia school district were assigned to receive the treatment of Structured Read-Aloud or received traditional middle-school reading instruction. These students were tested using the Diagnostic Online Reading Assessment (DORA), both in the fall before the intervention was implemented and again in the spring of the same year, to assess gains. Results indicate that the use of Read-Aloud instruction had an impact on student DORA scores, and implications of the research are discussed.

School Wellness Policies: Effects of Using Standard Templates

Public school policies related to physical activity and nutrition recently have become the focal point for policymakers to evaluate the effect of regulations on the childhood obesity epidemic. State school board associations have begun to provide school districts templates for wellness policies, and little research exists that evaluates the effect of a template on the strength and comprehensiveness of these policies. To determine the strength and comprehensiveness of school wellness policies developed using a standard template when compared to those that do not. In 2011, a random sample of wellness policies from school districts in Virginia (ten locally developed wellness policies and ten template-based policies) was coded using a previously validated audit tool for strength and comprehensiveness. Data were reduced to a scale ranging from 0 to 1, with higher scores representing stronger and more-comprehensive policies, and compared using t-tests. Overall, only 17% of school wellness policies met all federal requirements. On average, locally developed policies met five of six federal requirements, whereas VSBA policies met four of six, t(2, 21)=2.161, p<0.05. Both types of policies were ranked on a scale from 0 (weakest) to 1 (strongest); both types were weak (M=0.16±0.13) and only mildly comprehensive (M=0.37±0.16). There was a difference in policy comprehensiveness and strength between locally developed policies and template-based policies. Locally developed policies were stronger, t(2, 21)= -1.82, p<0.05, and more comprehensive, t(2, 21)= -2.5, p<0.05, than template-based policies. In this sample, locally developed policies were stronger than template-based policies. If replicated in large studies, these findings suggest that further research is needed about how best to support schools that wish to develop school wellness policies.

Understanding the Influence of Perceived Usability and Technology Self-Efficacy on Teachers’ Technology Acceptance

The Technology Acceptance Model (TAM) represents how users come to accept and use a given technology and can be applied to teachers’ use of educational technologies. Here the model is extended to incorporate teachers’ perceived usability and self-efficacy measures toward the technologies they are currently using. The authors administered a survey to K–12 teachers in two rural school districts in Virginia, and 99 teachers responded. We then analyzed the responses with both reliability statistics and general linear modeling techniques. The results indicated that the incorporation of perceived usability into the TAM explained more variance and was more influential to TAM elements than its absence, thereby supporting the importance, positive influence, and necessity of evaluating usability when investigating educational technology acceptance and usage behavior. Furthermore, the study found teachers’ technology self-efficacy (TSE) was more beneficial to the TAM than their computer self-efficacy (CSE); however, this impact might vary for the evaluations of different populations and technologies.

Are Local Policies Supporting Instruction Becoming Standardized?

This study examined whether instructional policies at the local level are becoming standardized as a result of state and federal accountability initiatives. A stratified random sample of 21 Virginia school districts was used, and the policies reviewed covered seven topics: class size, student grouping, homework, remedial instruction programs, school-year programs for students who fail state tests, summer school programs, and retaking state tests. The authors found that the majority of the 21 districts adopted or amended policies in the wake of accountability initiatives instituted since 1995. Both similarities and differences were found in the districts' policies, but the differences did not appear to be substantial.

Table of Contents

AbstractField Praises Landmark Bill to Strengthen Community Mental Health SystemAdvocates Hit Virginia School District for Memo Questioning ADHD TreatmentSenate Restores Funding to Critical Mental Health ProgramsReport: Nicotine Dependence Among Teens Linked to DepressionExcerpts from Document Sent to District's ParentsBriefly NotedCall for NominationsNames in the NewsComing up

Quiet Warriors: Black Teachers' Memories of Integration in Two Virginia Localities

In this article, the author examines the transition from segregation to full integration in two Virginia school districts, 1965–1970. He begins with short participant profiles and reveals how personal connections uncovered new voices in the school desegregation process. Next, the author gives an overview of political events in Virginia following Brown v. Board of Education (1954). The focus then shifts to the classroom experiences of ten Black teachers who integrated faculties in Powhatan County and the city of Charlottesville school districts. The author closes by predicting how the teachers in this study would react to the current school environments.

Food for thought: the effects of school accountability plans on school nutrition

With the passage of the No Child Left Behind Act of 2001, school accountability is now federal law, continuing the recent trend of states implementing significant accountability systems for schools. This paper studies an unusual yet powerful school response to accountability systems. Using disaggregated school lunch menus from a random sample of school districts in Virginia, we find that schools threatened with accountability sanctions increase the caloric content of their lunches on testing days in an apparent attempt to boost short-term student cognitive performance. Moreover, we find that the schools that responded the most along these dimensions experienced the greatest improvements in standardized test scores.

Food for thought: the effects of school accountability plans on school nutrition

With the passage of the No Child Left Behind Act of 2001, school accountability is now federal law, continuing the recent trend of states implementing significant accountability systems for schools. This paper studies an unusual yet powerful school response to accountability systems. Using disaggregated school lunch menus from a random sample of school districts in Virginia, we find that schools threatened with accountability sanctions increase the caloric content of their lunches on testing days in an apparent attempt to boost short-term student cognitive performance. Moreover, we find that the schools that responded the most along these dimensions experienced the greatest improvements in standardized test scores.