Vhembe District Municipality Research Articles

Sustainability of the Linkages Between Water–Energy–Food Resources Based on Structural Equation Modeling Under Changing Climate: A Case Study of Narok County (Kenya) and Vhembe District Municipality (South Africa)

Sustainability of the Linkages Between Water–Energy–Food Resources Based on Structural Equation Modeling Under Changing Climate: A Case Study of Narok County (Kenya) and Vhembe District Municipality (South Africa)

Temporal Variability of Hydroclimatic Extremes: A Case Study of Vhembe, uMgungundlovu, and Lejweleputswa District Municipalities in South Africa

The current study investigated hydroclimatic extremes in Vhembe, Lejweleputswa, and uMgungundlovu District Municipalities based on streamflow data from 21 river gauge stations distributed across the study site for the period spanning 1985–2023. Statistical metrics such as the annual mean and maximum streamflow, as well as trends in annual, maximum, seasonal, and high/low flow, were used to evaluate the historical features of streamflow in each of the three district municipalities. Moreover, the Standardized Streamflow Index (SSI) time series computed from streamflow observations at 3- and 6-month accumulation periods were used to assess hydroclimatic extremes, including drought episodes, proportion of wet/dry years and trends in SSI, drought duration (DD), and drought severity (DS). The results indicate that the three district municipalities have experienced localized and varying degrees of streamflow levels and drought conditions. The uMgungundlovu District Municipality in particular has experienced a significant decline in annual and seasonal streamflow as well as an increase in drought conditions during the 38-year period of analysis. This is supported by the negative trends observed in most of the assessed metrics (e.g., annual, maximum, seasonal, low/high flow, and SSI), whereas DD and DS showed positive trends in all the stations, suggesting an increase in prolonged duration and severity of drought. The Lejweleputswa District Municipality depicted positive trends in most of the assessed metrics, suggesting that streamflow increased, whereas drought decreased in the region over the 38-year period of study. Moreover, the Vhembe District Municipality experienced both negative and positive trends, suggesting localized variations in dry and wet conditions. The results presented in this study contribute towards drought monitoring and management efforts in support of policy- and decision-making that aim to uplift water resources management and planning at local and district municipality levels.

Experiences of ecosystem changes on food services of mopane woodland communities in Vhembe, South Africa

Mopane woodlands have been shifting. While it is important to understand the spatial patterns that characterise this phenomenon, it is even more important to understand the impacts of shifting Mopane woodlands on rural communities that rely on them. This study sought to establish the impacts of shifting mopane woodlands on the production of indigenous plant food in Ward 12 of Musina local municipality in the Vhembe District municipality in the Limpopo province of South Africa. To accomplish this, the study utilised a hybrid inductive approach involving thematic-based questionnaire interviews and an exploratory view to gain insight into the narratives of focus group participants. Results revealed that seven (7) out of eleven (11) indigenous plant foods are becoming extinct, thereby limiting food sources of indigenous and local people who used to rely on them. The spatial pattern of the plant foods that are still available has now changed as they no longer grow within the reach of local communities. The community members are struggling to adapt to these changes. From these observations, we recommend that local and regional levels’ policies related to natural resource management should consider the unique challenges faced by communities experiencing disruptive ecosystem changes and provide the necessary support for sustainable adaptation.

Investigating Supply Chain Enablers and Barriers in the Agricultural Industry in the Vhembe District Municipality, South Africa

Investigating Supply Chain Enablers and Barriers in the Agricultural Industry in the Vhembe District Municipality, South Africa

Distribution of host-specific Bacteriodales marker genes in water sources of selected rural areas of Vhembe District, South Africa

Access to safe drinking water sources and appropriate sanitation facilities remains a dream in low and middle-income countries including South Africa. This study identified the origin of faecal pollution by using quantitative polymerase chain reaction (qPCR) targeting host-specific Bacteroidales genetic markers to track the distribution of human-specific (BacHum) and animal-specific (cattle—BacCow, chicken—Cytb, pig—Pig-2-Bac, dog—BacCan) markers in water sources used by rural communities of the Vhembe District Municipality (VDM). Results revealed the prevalence of BacHum, BacCow, and BacCan in all surface water sources in Thulamela Local Municipality (TLM) and Collins Chabane Local Municipality (CLM) during wet (100%) and dry seasons (50–75%). Cytb was not detected in untreated spring water in TLM and CLM, and Pig-2-Bac was not detected in untreated hand-dug well water in TLM during both seasons. Household-level analysis detected Cytb (28.8% wet, 17.5% dry), BacHum (34.4% wet, 25% dry for Pig-2-Bac) in stored untreated spring water in CLM, and Cytb (42.9% wet, 28.5% dry) in untreated hand-dug well water in TLM. Despite differences in detection frequencies of host-specific Bacteroidales, the study highlights the public health concern of faecal pollution in rural VDM households.

Challenges encountered by SMMEs in accessing bank credit: a case of Vhembe District Municipality

Policymakers and scholars universally accept and recognize the influence of small, macro, and medium enterprises (SMMEs) on stimulating economic growth and job creation. To succeed and prosper, SMMEs need to establish a sound financial management function; therefore, it is vital to investigate the financial challenges these firms are experiencing. The objective of this paper was, to investigate possible challenges that SMMEs experience when applying for credit from banks. The study sought to answer the main research question - ‘What challenges are encountered by SMMEs when applying for credit from banks? The study adopted a qualitative research methodology. The population used in this research was derived from SMMEs and banking officials in the Vhembe District Municipality area. Stratified random sampling was used to select a sample of 10 research participants. An interview guide was used to gather data from the participants; the data was analyzed using Atlas.ti. The results indicated that most SMMEs in the Vhembe district are not adequately supported, especially in the areas of financial resources, as well as in financial literacy skills and expertise. Specifically, this study identified that the credit application challenges faced by SMMEs are related to - lack of collateral security, lack of financial application education, complex bank credit access regulations, non-satisfaction of banks’ qualifying criteria, as well as stringent credit system, and documentation requirements.

Traditional taboos: informal and invisible protection of remaining patches of forest in Vhembe District in Limpopo, South Africa

IntroductionSince 1990, there has been a global decline in forest areas. Between 2010 and 2020, the greatest annual net loss of forests was on the African continent. Despite South African indigenous forests and trees being protected under the National Forests Act of 1998 (Act No. 84 of 1998), the country has also shown an increased annual net loss of forests. Although the Vhembe District Municipality in South Africa has lost forest owing to human-induced deforestation and other land use activities, sacred forests have not been affected. According to traditional beliefs, exploitation of such indigenous patches of sacred forests is taboo. This study aims to explore the role of taboos in the protection of the remaining patches of sacred forest.MethodsThe study relies on data collected between December 2022 and December 2023. Semi-structured interviews were conducted with key informants (n = 61) and local communities in Tshidzivhe and Duthuni villages (n = 60). Observations were used as a further data collection tool. The interview questions were prepared to assess the role of taboos in the protection and management of sacred forests. Data collected through interviews were analysed using thematic content analysis, while field observations helped to corroborate the results from the interviews. Results and discussionThe study identified two main taboos – one that restricts entry into the sacred forests (i.e. preventing entry into the sacred forests, and harvesting, hunting and hiking in these areas), and another that prohibits noise or activities that disrespect sacred forests. The study found that believers and non-believers alike, for fear of retribution by the spirits, still obey these taboos and their related myths. This has allowed these areas to develop dense stands of closed-canopy evergreen forest that support more diverse flora and fauna than found in surrounding areas. Although sacred forests are not meant for biodiversity conservation, they offer opportunities to be integrated into global conservation targets of “30x30” and “Half-Earth” by 2030. They also offer the opportunity of serving as carbon sinks which is key to climate change mitigation. Recommendations for protecting sacred forests and associated taboos are drawn up based on these results.

The Relationship between Integrated Development Planning and Water Demand Planning

The correlation between integrated development planning and water demand planning represents innovative and noteworthy concepts within the field of public administration. In recent years, a significant number of researchers have focused their investigations on elucidating the connection between integrated development planning and water demand Planning, offering a fresh perspective on public management. These processes constitute vital elements of contemporary public management within governmental sectors. This study employs a mixed-method research approach, incorporating both qualitative and quantitative methodologies. Secondary data, obtained through a systematic review of literature comprising 237 documents from Scopus-indexed journals spanning the years 2019 to 2024, provides insights into the extensive body of literature concerning the relationship between integrated development planning and water demand planning. Primary data was collected from five interviews conducted with managers from the Vhembe District Municipality. The literature review analysis reveals that the research based on the relationship between integrated development planning and water demand planning is fragmented, with different subsets of documents focusing on distinct aspects or methodologies without much overlap or integration between them. The abundance of literature on the relationship between integrated development planning and water demand planning underscores its significance in the field of public management. Insights from interviews indicate a lack of clarity regarding roles and responsibilities concerning the connection between integrated development planning and water demand planning. In conclusion, this study emphasises the emerging importance of the relationship between Integrated Development Planning and Water Demand Planning within the realm of public administration. Keywords: Integrated, Development, Planning, Water, Demand

Through our indigenous greeting terms, we are identified: a study of Tshivenḓa from Tshimbupfhe, Vhembe District Municipality, Limpopo, South Africa

ABSTRACT This study aimed to explore the importance of indigenous Tshivenḓa greeting terms as a means of social identification among Tshimbupfhe residents from the Vhembe District Municipality (VDM), South Africa. Indigenous Tshivenḓa greeting terms constitute a significant part of verbal behaviour through which the cultural practices of a society can be maintained as aspects of speakers’ identity. Disregarding these forms of greeting in any formal communication setting may result in a loss of identity, respect, and dignity, as well as causing misunderstandings, language shift, and death. The study adopted face-to-face semi-structured interviews to collect data. The theoretical framework used was the social identity theory (SIT). The findings of this study revealed that Tshivenḓa forms of greeting are not only for greeting purposes; they are also used as identity markers. Consequently, the study recommended that Tshivenḓa speakers, especially the youth, should not compromise on using their native forms of greeting, regardless of modernisation, as it is the only way that they can easily identify themselves and display politeness in any communication encounter. The study contributes to the maintenance and understanding of these forms of greeting as tools for identification.

Applying Microbial Source Tracking Techniques for Identification of Pathways of Faecal Pollution from Water Sources to Point of Use in Vhembe District, South Africa

A safe water supply is a necessity, but it remains one of the backlogs of services rendered in rural areas of developing countries. This leads to vulnerable communities using water from available sources that is unsafe as it is contaminated with faecal matter. Microbial source tracking (MST) methods are gold-standard techniques that detect the exact sources of faecal contamination. This study, therefore, tracked and identified the exact sources of faecal contamination from the catchment to the point of use in rural areas of Vhembe District Municipality. Collected water samples (n = 1048) were concentrated by membrane filtration for the enumeration and detection of E. coli, followed by DNA extraction. The extracted DNA was subjected to a quantitative polymerase chain reaction (qPCR) to track target host-specific Bacteroidales genetic markers from the water source to the point of use. Rivers and dams exhibited maximum E. coli counts of up to 90 CFU/100 mL during the wet season and up to 50 CFU/100 mL during the dry season. Due to the effective treatment of these water sources, no E. coli bacteria were detected in any of the sampled municipal drinking water treatment plants at the point of treatment, while this indicator bacterium was detected at the point of use (households), with a maximum of 4 CFU/100 mL recorded during both the wet and dry seasons. Overall, the most prevalent MST marker exhibited during the wet season was BacCan (dog-associated, 6.87%), followed by BacCow (cow-associated, 5.53%), while Pig-2-Bac (pig-associated, 2.48%) was the least prevalent. The most prevalent marker exhibited during the dry season was BacCan (5.34%), followed by BacCow, with Pig-2-Bac (1.72%) being the least prevalent. A positive correlation (r = 0.31, p = 0.001) was established between the presence of the MST markers and detected E. coli from water sources to the point of use. The knowledge of the faecal contamination attributes in both public and domestic domains will assist in developing prevention and control strategies.

Assessment of rural livelihoods, health and wellbeing in Vhembe District Municipality, South Africa and Narok County, Kenya: A water-energy-food nexus perspective

The Water-Energy-Food (WEF) nexus has become an integral component duly suited to enable sustainable development and an important tool to achieve and sustain various socioeconomic and environmental outcomes, including the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development Goals. The WEF nexus has become increasingly important in recent years as it can holistically address humankind's current triple challenges, including resource depletion, environmental degradation, and population growth. Socioeconomic factors such as increased population, economic development, and climate change patterns frequently induce unprecedented pressure on WEF resources. From the various climate change model simulations, the climate is likely to increase in the future, exacerbating the demand of the population to access the WEF resources and services. For effective resource planning and decision-making, the availability of WEF resources must be assessed under ongoing climate change. In this regard, this study assessed rural livelihoods, health, and wellbeing indicators within the WEF nexus framework in Vhembe District Municipality (VDM), South Africa, and Narok County, Kenya. The premise was to determine the drivers of livelihood changes by applying the analytic hierarchy process (AHP), a Multi-Criteria Decision-Making to understand the causal linkages between the WEF nexus resources and the sustainable livelihood indicators. Data collected from the literature review, questionnaire/group discussions, and field visit engagements were used to formulate and develop a matrix of indicators to assess livelihoods, health, and wellbeing. A correlation analysis based on the AHP was used to determine the linkages between WEF resources and sustainable livelihood indicators. The multivariate analysis used the correlation matrix to capture the pairwise degrees of relationship between WEF resources and sustainable livelihood indicators in the two study areas. The results show that the resources for sustainable livelihoods in VDM are more sustainable than those in Narok County. The Consistency Ratio values for Narok County and VDM were 0.046 and 0.067, respectively. The resulting composite index (0.143) classified both study sites under the lowly sustainable category. The results are important for informing policy formulation that guides timely interventions to balance socio-ecological systems.

Assessment of the presence of Vibrio cholera and detection of toxigenic Vibrio cholerae in river sources within the Vhembe District Municipality Limpopo province of South Africa

ABSTRACT Most rivers in South Africa, particularly in rural areas, are contaminated and serve as a breeding ground for potential disease-causing microorganisms such as Vibrio cholera. Contaminated river sources could endanger the health of those communities that rely on them for domestic, agricultural, and recreational purposes. The aim of the study was to examine the presence of V. cholera and toxigenic V. cholera water samples from river sources collected in the Vhembe Municipal District during a three-month period. Physicochemical parameters, culture dependent and molecular techniques were used to identify V. cholerae in the samples. Majority of the physiochemical parameters were within the acceptable limit with exception of electrical conductivity readings in the Mvudi, Livuvhu, Dzindi, Nzhelele, Mutale, Shingwedzi, Tshinane and Nwedi rivers which were above the acceptable standard limit of 0–70 μS/cm. Most of the river samples tested positive for the presence of V. cholera, particularly on the downstream samples. Toxigenic V. cholerae was detected in four of the 12 samples that originally tested positive for V. cholera. The study revealed poor water quality and significant health concerns to consumers, emphasizing the importance of implementing river basin management measures to ensure the long-term sustainability of these rivers.

Challenges of public participation in improving basic service delivery in Vhembe District Municipality, Limpopo, South Africa

Challenges of public participation in improving basic service delivery in Vhembe District Municipality, Limpopo, South Africa

Rural tourism in South Africa: A local economic development strategy

This study aims to assess the potential of rural tourism as a strategy for local economic development in three rural villages in the Thulamela Local Municipality, which falls under the Vhembe District Municipality in the Limpopo province of South Africa. Rural tourism is considered a promising industry for rural development and a popular approach to local economic growth. Sustainable rural tourism is recognised as a crucial component of rural development and is particularly important in developing nations, such as South Africa, where substantial rural populations and limited economic activity exist. The study utilised a qualitative research approach, drawing on an exploratory design and interpretive paradigm. A purposive sampling technique was adopted to select participants. Focus group discussions were conducted with the participants, and content analysis was used to analyse the collected data. The study indicates that rural tourism could effectively promote local economic growth in the three rural villages by providing residents with employment opportunities, thereby reducing poverty rates in rural areas. However, challenges remain, including the lack of funding to support small tourism businesses and the need for human capital development in local communities. The study recommends a gradual approach to knowledge and skills development within local communities to support the business aspects of rural tourism development, as well as the provision of funding assistance.

Tracking enteric pathogen contamination from on-site sanitation facilities to groundwater in selected rural areas of Vhembe District Municipality, Limpopo Province, South Africa

Groundwater is valued as a source of potable water, although it is vulnerable to environmental pollution. The aim of this study was to track enteric pathogen contamination from on-site sanitation (OSS) facilities to 70 household boreholes used by four villages of the Vhembe District Municipality. Two objectives were pursued: to measure the lateral distance between the borehole and the sanitation facilities in household yards, and to track the enteric pathogens. The borehole abstraction point and OSS system distance were determined using a steel measuring tape. Real-time PCR was used to track Shigella flexneri, Salmonella typhimurium, Campylobacter jejuni, and enterotoxigenic Escherichia coli (ETEC) from Wastewater (WW) from domestic septic tank and sludge from pit latrines to boreholes. Escherichia coli was used as an indicator of faecal contamination. Results showed that 25% of households kept a distance of ≥50 m between the OSS facilities and the boreholes. In total, 87.5% of household boreholes in the rainy season and 72.5% in the dry season were contaminated with E. coli and pathogenic bacteria: Shigella flexneri, Salmonella typhimurium, and ETEC. The concentrations of the pathogens ranged from 2.03 to 2.12 LogEGC/100 mL. A very weak (r = −0.093) to moderate (r = −0.541) association was found between pathogens in groundwater and on-site sanitation systems (WW from septic tank and sludge from pit latrine). This suggests that the pathogens were not present in the sanitation compartment when they were found in the groundwater and vice versa. Moreover, a very weak (r = 0.007) to moderate (r = 0.525) association was found between the detected contaminants in groundwater and the lateral distance between the OSS facilities and the boreholes. The pathogens detected in all samples showed consistent concentrations, suggesting potential contamination from OSS systems' waste, possibly in groundwater, indicating potential contamination. The siting of OSS facilities at the yards in this study appeared to have a slight influence on the contaminants detected in groundwater. This study calls for an education program to be implemented by the Water and Sanitation Services Authorities to prevent contamination of groundwater and the risk of waterborne diseases.

Assessing and mapping water-energy-food nexus smart innovations and practices in Vhembe District Municipality, Limpopo Province, South Africa

Water, energy, and food and their interactions (commonly referred to as the WEF nexus) are critical pillars to resolving the intractable global challenges such as poverty, hunger, malnutrition, poor sanitation, climate, and health crises. The nexus approach, practices, and innovations at the household level are critical determinants of whether resource use efficiency, co-benefits, basic rights to water and food, and sustainability governance are attained. In particular, smart WEF innovations can contribute to the current generations' economic, social, and environmental needs without compromising the needs of the future generation. The study aimed to identify smart innovations, practices, and factors influencing their adoption to inform policy and decision-making processes. The study intends to support scaling up the adoption of innovations and practices that enhance sustainability and resource security in support of the sustainable development goals (SDGs). Semi-structured interviews and key informant interviews (KII) supplemented with observational checklists were used to identify the WEF nexus smart technologies, innovations, and practices in Vhembe District Municipality, Limpopo Province, South Africa. Data were collected from a sample size of 128 households in the study area. Our findings revealed synergistic smart innovation practices across WEF resource use and management practices. Though indigenous knowledge (IK) practices were widely evident in the study area, non-existent WEF smart knowledge support systems existed in the study area. Indigenous knowledge practices were the most elicited innovation by 99.2% of households, suggesting it is critical to advancing WEF smart innovations and practices and needs to be integrated into any policy and governance interventions. A proportion of households recycle water (27%), whilst 53% use untreated water. Furthermore, the knowledge systems on smart WEF innovations were fragmented despite their potential to synergize sustainability objectives. Exploring innovation platforms (IPs) as vehicles for dissemination, innovation, and extension and advisory service delivery, as well as validation of Indigenous Knowledge Systems (IKS), has the potential to contribute to the diffusion, uptake, and scaling of existing innovation and practices with significant spill-over effects on WEF resource security and sustainability outcomes both at local and extra local scales.

Governance challenges in the provision of municipal services: in the Vhembe District Municipality

Governance challenges in the provision of municipal services: in the Vhembe District Municipality

A survey of water quality at two rural water treatment plants and various points-of-use in Vhembe District Municipality, South Africa

ABSTRACT Water treatment plants (WTPs) in developing countries play an important role in providing potable water to rural and urban areas. However, they often face many challenges, making them unable to produce quality water for consumers. We surveyed the performance of two rural WTPs from the Vhembe District Municipality, South Africa for eight months using secondary water quality data from each plant. Turbidity at the WTPs and most points of use (POU) exceeded the aesthetic (5 NTU) and operational (1 NTU) risk guidelines. Fluoride, iron, and manganese were within the regulated limits of < 1 mg/L, <3 mg/L and < 4 mg/L, respectively), but with signs of post-treatment change in the concentration of iron and manganese in the distribution system. At both WTPs, the free chlorine residual was below limits (<5 mg/L,), posing a risk of proliferation of pathogens in the distribution system. The results indicated problems with water disinfection at both WTPs. The study suggested the existence of challenges with the integrity, good operation, and maintenance of the water treatment system and distribution network. It is necessary to continuously monitor the performance of WTPs and POU to ensure public health and safety.

Challenges facing traditional ecological knowledge in the Vhembe District Municipality in Limpopo Province, South Africa

Although TEK has been marginalised during colonial and apartheid era, over the past four decades, there has been a proliferation of research on TEK at local, regional and international levels. This is because, among other reasons, TEK provides multiple benefits to the bearers of such knowledge and contributes to the protection of the environment and ecosystem services. Despite this knowledge being important both for human and non-human environments, it faces several challenges among contemporary indigenous societies. Using the concept of power as a lens, this study aimed to investigate the challenges facing TEK using the Vhembe district in Limpopo Province (South Africa) as a case study. The study relied on semi-structured face-to-face interviews with local people. This method was found to be appropriate since it is flexible and allow for wide range of opinions that exceed the limits imposed by interview schedule. Key selected respondents included custodians of sacred sites, traditional leaders, bearers of TEK, educators, scholars dealing with TEK, curriculum experts, local pastors, and Christians. These respondents were selected using stratified purposeful sampling approach. A thematic content analysis was used to analyse the data obtained from the interviews. The study found that the cause of TEK system degradation is a complicated and multidisciplinary problem, including the compounding influences of dominant religions, formal education, new political dispensation, modernisation and advances in science and technology, as well as commercialisation. Recommendations for improving TEK management practices are drawn up based on these results.

Assessing the Occurrence of Host-Specific Faecal Indicator Markers in Water Systems as a Function of Water, Sanitation and Hygiene Practices: A Case Study in Rural Communities of Vhembe District Municipality, South Africa.

In settings where humans and animals closely coexist, the introduction of faecal material into unprotected water sources significantly increases the risk of contracting diarrhoeal and zoonotic waterborne diseases. The data were gathered from a survey conducted through interviews at randomly sampled villages; additionally, water samples were collected in randomly selected households and their associated feeder catchments. Molecular techniques were used, specifically qPCR, to run host-specific Bacteroides microbial source tracking (MST) assays for human, cattle, pig, chicken and dog faecal contamination. Unexpectedly, the qPCR assays revealed dogs to be the most prevalent (40.65%) depositor of faecal matter in unprotected surface water, followed by humans (40.63%); this finding was contradictory to survey findings indicating cattle as the leading source. At the household level, dogs (16.67%) and chickens (15.28%) played prominent roles, as was expected. Reflecting on some of the basic daily practices in households, nearly 89.00% of the population was found to store water due to erratic supply, in contrast to 93.23% using an improved water source. Additionally, a significant association was found between water, sanitation and hygiene (WASH) variables and the occurrence of MST markers after performing a bivariate linear regression. However, the inconsistency between the MST results and household surveys suggests pervasive sanitation issues, even in households without domesticated animals.