Veterinary Mycology Research Articles

Comparative assessment of regulated methods and PCR in the diagnosis of trichophytosis in veterinary mycology.

There is an increase in the incidence of human and animal infectious skin diseases of fungal etiology in the world. The main source of infecting the population has become agricultural and stray animals. The objective of this study was to examine the morphophysiological and microbiological characteristics of pathogenic fungi belonging to the species Trichophyton verrucosum. This species is known to cause diseases in both humans and livestock in Kazakhstan. In addition, the study aimed to assess the feasibility of using the polymerase chain reaction (PCR) method for detecting T. verrucosum. This assessment was conducted in comparison to the outcomes of conventional laboratory diagnostic tests commonly employed for trichophytosis. The research focused on analyzing 141 samples of pathological material obtained from calves in Almaty, Turkestan, and Kyzylorda regions. These calves exhibited clinical symptoms of skin disease. The study aimed to identify the causative agent using various techniques, including microscopic examination, microbiological methods involving the isolation of pure cultures, and PCR. The detection of the causative agent of dermatophytosis using conventional methods was relatively low, 86% for the microscopic method, and 79% for the microbiological method with the isolation of the culture of the pathogen. Extraction and detection of the genetic material of the causative agent of the disease for PCR was carried out according to the method developed by the authors. The effectiveness of the PCR method was 97.9%, which is significantly higher (p < 0.05) compared with the diagnostic effectiveness of conventional methods. The PCR method using specific primers identified the causative agent in 98% of cases, which significantly (p < 0.05) exceeded the results obtained using conventional diagnostic methods. Accordingly, the PCR method had better sensitivity and specificity indicators. The conducted study recommends the method of PCR diagnosis of dermatophytosis for fast and reliable confirmation of the diagnosis of dermatophytosis in humans and animals in Kazakhstan.

S2.4a Pythiosis: An emerging disease in Hong Kong

S2.4 Veterinary mycology research, September 21, 2022, 3:00 PM - 4:30 PMOomycosis is an emerging disease of humans and animals caused by oomycetes in the Stramenopiles-Alveolata-Rhizaria super group, mainly Pythium insidiosum and occasionally Lagenidium giganteum or Paralagenidum species. In surface freshwater, oomycetes produce motile biflagellate asexual zoospores with marked chemotactic attraction to epithelial surfaces of vertebrate hosts. Infection is the result of encystation and invasion of damaged skin or gastrointestinal mucosa.Of ∼ 4200 cases of pythiosis reported globally between 1980 and 2021 only ∼ 20% involved humans while 80% involved animals, mainly horses, dogs, and cattle. Most human cases occur in India and Thailand, whereas most animal infections were reported in the United States and Brazil. Pythiosis has been reported in mainland China, but the burden of the disease is low and comprises <1% of overall cases in humans.Neither pythiosis nor lagenidiosis has been previously reported in humans or animals in Hong Kong. From January 2018 to January 2022, the Veterinary Diagnostic Laboratory of City University of Hong Kong diagnosed 10 cases of oomycosis (5 canine, 5 feline) after identification of non-parallel walled, irregularly branching, and poorly septate hyphae in the center of necrotic regions of histological sections of formalin-fixed paraffin-embedded tissues (FFPET). Species identity was confirmed by PCR and sequencing of 28S rDNA from DNA extracts of FFPET. There were 8 cases of P. insidiosum and 2 of L. giganteum infection. Serum ELISA was positive for Pythium antibodies in 5/6 cases tested and negative for Pythium/Lagenidium/Paralagenidum antibodies in a German shepherd dog (GSD) with disseminated disease caused by L. giganteum.Affected dogs were young to middle-aged at presentation (9 months to 5 years old). Two dogs had focal cutaneous infections, two had extensive gastrointestinal involvement, and the GSD had disseminated disease with cutaneous, mediastinal, and abdominal involvement.Affected cats were young (8 weeks to 18 months) and presented with subcutaneous/cutaneous disease. Three cats had a distinctive perianal ring of bulging subcutaneous granulation tissue, including one that also had an ulcerated, proliferative and necrotic lesion involving two adjacent hind-limb digits. One cat had facial subcutaneous swelling with mandibular lymph node enlargement and the remaining cat presented with extensive circumferential swelling of one hind limb from the distal paw to the mid-stifle.All cats tested negative for the Feline leukemia virus and Feline immunodeficiency virus. Traumatic or surgical wounds preceding infection were identified in a kitten caught in a rodent glue-trap with skin wounds, in a cat with facial involvement that had an injured globe surgically enucleated, and in a dog with cutaneous pythiosis that had chronic dermatitis.Treatment data were available for one canine case. The GSD with lagenidiosis was treated with combination antimicrobial therapy including voriconazole, terbinafine, minocycline, and azithromycin. The dog responded poorly. Mefenoxam was substituted for voriconazole and hyperbaric oxygen therapy was administered. After initial response, the dog succumbed 4 months from diagnosis. We have had success with the treatment of four feline cases using combination therapy including surgical debridement, immunotherapy with a Pythium vaccine, and combinations of antifungal drugs (posaconazole and terbinafine), and/or antimicrobials (doxycycline/minocycline and azithromycin).

S2.4d Combination antifungal effects of eugenol with voriconazole against Candida tropicalis and Candida krusei strains isolated from the genital tract of mares

S2.4 Veterinary mycology research, September 21, 2022, 3:00 PM - 4:30 PM ObjectivesThe objective of the current study was to investigate the possibility that eugenol synergizes the antifungal effects of voriconazole on genital isolates of Candida krusei and Candida tropicalis from mares.MethodsThe antifungal activity of eugenol and voriconazole was evaluated using the broth microdilution assay (CLSI- M27-A3). The synergism of eugenol and voriconazole against genital Candida isolates was evaluated by the microdilution checkerboard method.ResultsMinimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) values for eugenol and voriconazole ranged from 400 to 800 μg/ml and 1 to 8 μg/ml, respectively, for C. tropicalis isolates, and from 200 to 400 μg/ml for eugenol and 2 to 16 μg/ml for voriconazole against C. krusei isolates. Eugenol decreased the arithmetic mean of MIC for voriconazole against C. tropicalis and C. krusei isolates from 2.66 to 0.46 μg/ml and 7.77 to 0.41 μg/ml respectively. The fractional inhibitory concentration index (FICI) values for the eugenol voriconazole combination ranged from 0.25 to 0.88 and 0.19 to 0.63 for C. tropicalis and C. krusei isolates respectively. A synergistic effect of eugenol in combination with voriconazole was observed for 83.3% of C. tropicalis and 77.7% of C. krusei isolates. The antagonistic activity was not seen in any of the isolates tested.ConclusionsEugenol showed fungistatic and fungicidal effects against genital Candida isolates and, in combination, synergized the antifungal effects of voriconazole. The eugenol-voriconazole combination can lay the foundation for a therapeutic approach against isolates in which azole resistance has increased over time.

Writing for Wikipedia: An Exercise in Microbiology, Writing, Research, Communication, and Public Service.

The COVID-19 pandemic has had a tremendous impact on how postsecondary education was and is delivered. Educators were forced to rapidly move their instruction online and find new and innovative ways to convey content, stimulate student engagement, and satisfy curricular requirements. The purpose of this article is to describe the use of a Wikipedia writing assignment in Veterinary Bacteriology and Mycology, a second-year course in the Doctor of Veterinary Medicine (DVM) curriculum at the University of Saskatchewan. Students had the opportunity to write and edit incomplete articles on topics related to course content. In addition to deep exploration of a topic, this fostered in students the development of research and communication skills, which have been articulated as core competencies in veterinary programs.

Yeast fungi of the genus Malassezia in dermatological diseases in animals

The relevance of a comprehensive study of yeast fungi of the genus Malassezia and the development of modern methods for the diagnosis of diseases caused by small domestic animals. Infectious diseases of small domestic animals caused by yeasts have become a high priority in recent years among the problems of veterinary mycology. However, issues of diagnosis, therapy and prevention of yeast infections in small pets remain poorly understood. Difficulties in diagnosing Malassezia infections lead to the fact that in most cases these diseases remain undiagnosed, sick animals do not receive adequate therapy. Therefore, there is a clear need to develop affordable and practical diagnostic algorithms. Depending on the severity and location of the lesion, systemic or local antifungal drugs are used in combination with symptomatic treatment: antihistamines, antipruritic drugs. If necessary, antibiotic therapy is used and in case of using systemic antifungal drugs, hepatoprotectors are prescribed. Malassezia-associated dermatitis in animals is usually a secondary problem due to an underlying skin disease, such as allergic dermatitis (including atopic canine dermatitis and flea dermatitis), recurrent bacterial pyoderma, and endocrine diseases (especially hypothyroidism). The diagnosis of Malassezia-associated dermatitis should be based on a combination of clinical manifestations and microbiological analysis. Treatment is usually selected depending on such factors as: form (localized or generalized), general state of health of the animal, the main primary disease. A review of literature sources on this issue. The characteristics of different species of the genus Malassezia, which are present on the skin of domestic animals and have an etiological significance in the occurrence of diseases of small domestic animals. The localization of yeast fungi on the body of sick animals is described. In Ukraine, these diseases have not been purposefully studied, and the awareness of veterinarians and humane physicians about them remains unsatisfactory. Key words: yeast, fungi of the genus Malassezia, dermatitis, otitis, infection.

Clinical Symptoms, Endoscopic and Stroboscopic Imaging in Patients with Laryngeal Fungal Infection in Relation to Fungal Identification Result

This paper aims to describe the similarities and differences in fungal laryngitis’ clinical characteristics, endoscopic, and stroboscopic imaging between patients with positive and non-positive fungal identification results. The study enrolled 48 patients diagnosed with fungal laryngitis by the Endoscopy Department in the National ENT Hospital of Vietnam from August 2019 to March 2020. The study results show that the patients in both groups had dysphonia (100%), with insignificant difference in the severity. However, the patients in the Positive group were more likely to go to hospital right in the first month of the symptom (55%), whereas the patients in the Non-positive group usually waited for more than 3 months (57.1%), (p&lt;0.05). In endoscopic imaging, fungal pseudomembrane could be found mainly on the vocal cords in both groups, with instances spreading to the subglottis (15%) and trachea (5%) in the Positive group (p&lt;0.05). The tissue layer of the patients in the Positive group was mostly inflamed, meanwhile the patients in the Non-positive group were more prone to swelling tissue (67.9%), (p&lt;0.05). In stroboscopic imaging, the difference was minimal. The patients in the Positive group were more likely to lose the mucosal wave formation (60%) than in the Non-positive group (46.4%). There were also insignificant differences in the mucosal wave’s characteristics: asymmetry (50% in the Positive group; 66.7% in Non-positive group), diverse periodicity (50% in the Positive group; 33.3% in the Non-positive group). The paper concludes that there were differences between the two groups of patients and the clinical, endoscopic and stroboscopic findings, fungal identification should be further implemented for definitive diagnosis in patients with fungal laryngitis. &#x0D; Keywords&#x0D; Fungal laryngitis, dysphonia, endoscopic imaging, stroboscopic imaging, fungal identification.&#x0D; References&#x0D; [1] G.D. Brown, D.W. Denning, N.A.R. Gow, and S.M. Levitz, Hidden killers: Human fungal infections. SciTransl Med (4) (2012) 1-6. https://doi.org/10.1126/scitranslmed.3004404 [2] M. Pal, Veterinary and medical mycology. 1st ed. New Delhi: Indian Council of Agricultural Research, 2007.[3] H. Luong, Diagnosis and treatment in patients with fungal laryngitis, Doctoral thesis, Hanoi Medical University, 2004.[4] D. Thai, D. Nguyen, Diagnosis and treatment in fungal laryngitis, Ho Chi Minh Med 15(1) (2011) 222-227.[5] J. Guinea, and M. Torres - Narbona, Pulmonary aspergillosis in patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease: incidence, risk factors, and outcome. Clin Microbiol Infect. 16 (7) (2010) 870-877. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-0691.2009.03015.x[6] J.M. Wood, Theodore Anthanasiadis, and Jacqui Allen. 2009. Laryngitis. BMJ (349) (2009) 5827. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.g5827.[7] A. Chindamporn, A. Chakrabarti, and R. Li, Survey of laboratory practices for diagnosis of fungal infection in seven Asian countries: An Asia Fungal Working Group (AFWG) initiative, Med Mycol 56 (2018) 416 - 425. https://doi.org/ 10.1093/mmy/myx066 [8] R. Pribuisiene, V. Uloza, and P Kupcinskas, Perceptual and acoustic characteristics of voice changes in reflux laryngitis patients. J Voice 20 (1) (2006) 128 - 136. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jvoice.2004.12.001.&#x0D; &#x0D; &#x0D;

Арутюн Христофорович Саркисов ― основоположник отечественной ветеринарной микологии и микотоксикологии (к 110-летию со дня рождения)

A.Kh. Sarkisov entered the history of science as the founder of veterinary mycology and mycotoxicology. Outstanding talent of the scientist was harmoniously combined in A. Kh. Sarkisov with the talent of a true teacher. For outstanding contribution to the development of biological science, the introduction of scientific achievements in the production and training of scientific personnel. A.Kh. Sarkisov was awarded the title of Hero of Socialist Labor. A. Kh. Sarkisov's scientific activity is a bright milestone in the history of science of the 20th century.

Contribution of Prof. Dr. Mahendra Pal in Veterinary and Medical Mycology

Contribution of Prof. Dr. Mahendra Pal in Veterinary and Medical Mycology

PCR-terminal restriction fragment length polymorphism for direct detection and identification of dermatophytes in veterinary mycology

The biological diagnosis of dermatophytosis in veterinary medicine usually relies on direct microscopic examination and inoculation of the samples on appropriate culture media. However, identification of dermatophytes needs expertise, and cultures which require from days to weeks to be conclusive, may lack of sensitivity because of the quite common overgrowth of contaminants. Here we developed a polymerase chain reaction (PCR) assay based on terminal restriction fragment length polymorphism (TRFLP), which may improve sensitivity of the biological diagnosis and reduce the delay for initiation of treatment. This study was first conducted on pure cultures of various dermatophytes (27 species), yeasts (14 species) and moulds (45 species). After DNA extraction, the internal transcribed spacer (ITS)-28S region of ribosomal DNA was amplified with primers targeting specifically pathogenic dermatophytes, and species of interest were identified by TRFLP with appropriate restriction enzymes. After validation, this assay was applied to veterinary samples and results were compared to those obtained by direct microscopic examination and cultures. All target species were correctly identified, and none of the yeast or mould species was amplified, demonstrating specificity of the assay. Regarding clinical samples, the causative agent was detected by PCR-TRFLP from 97.1% of the samples with both positive direct microscopic examination and cultures. No dermatophytes were detected when both conventional tests were negative. PCR-TRFLP developed here demonstrated to be highly sensitive and specific, allowing rapid detection and direct identification of dermatophytes in veterinary practice. Therefore, this assay is especially suitable for the biological diagnosis of dermatophytosis in different animal species.

Susceptibility of Malassezia pachydermatis to azole antifungal agents evaluated by a new broth microdilution method

Malassezia pachydermatis is considered an opportunistic pathogen of the outer ear duct in dogs and cats. This yeast can also be found in the skin, rectum, anal sacks and vagina. Eighty-two samples of this yeast isolated from dogs with the symptoms of external otitis from the Porto Alegre region were tested for their susceptibility to antifungal agents using the Broth Microdilution Method. The testing antifungal agents were Ketoconazole, Fluconazole and Itraconazole. Experimental essays determined that Sabouraud dextrose broth supplemented with 1% Tween 80 was the most appropriate medium for culture, for a ten-fold dilutions for the inocula, and 48 hours as the interval of readings. The ranges of the Minimal Inhibitory Concentrations (MICs) for the 82 samples were (a) Ketoconazole, from 0.015 to 0.25 mg/mL (mean of 0.08 mg/mL), (b) Fluconazole, from 1 to 32 mg/mL (mean of 9.22 mg/mL), and (c) Itraconazole, from 0.007 to 0.125 mg/mL (mean of 0.05 mg/mL). The isolates of M. pachydermatis showed an excellent level of susceptibility to antifungal azole agents, with all strains being susceptible to Itraconazole, and with only 2.4 % and 3.7% being resistant to Fluconazole and Kketoconazole, respectively . The use of the broth microdilution method allows the assessment of the susceptibility of large numbers of samples from M. pachydermatis isolates to the most common antifungal agents. The proposed procedure is easy to perform and considerably inexpensive compared with other existing tests, which makes this a method of choice for laboratorial use. A standardization of procedures currently used in veterinary mycology laboratories is required. Consistent results among laboratories could greatly benefit the establishment of proper comparisons between studies on antifungal susceptibility and therapeutic trials.

Outstanding personalities in German-speaking mycology : Dedicated to Professor Dr. Johannes Müller.

The history of medical and veterinary mycology in general has been reviewed in the excellent monography by G.C. Ainsworth (1905-1998) published in 1986. Here, we will focus on German-speaking mycology and their outstanding personalities. We will start with the early years when medical mycology was in its infancy. Microscopy was a most valuable tool for the identification of fungi followed by cultivation and staining methods. Human pathologies became linked to fungi. After World War I, medical mycology flourished as an integral part of dermatology at universities and in private institutes. The development was interrupted by World War II, which divided Germany. In both parts of Germany, medical mycology had to be re-established. After re-unification the two different medical societies joined together. The development of DMyK (Deutschsprachigen Mykologischen Gesellschaft - Mykologie) is illustrated. Important personalities and some of their achievements are mentioned. Mycology has attracted other fields of medicine including internal medicine, pediatrics, microbiology, and veterinary medicine.

Medical and veterinary mycology

Wieland Meyer, Laszlo Irinyi and Tania Sorrell Molecular Mycology Research Laboratory, Centre for Infectious Diseases and Microbiology, Sydney Medical School–Westmead Hospital, MarieBashir Institute for InfectiousDiseases andBiosecurity, University of Sydney, Sydney,WestmeadMillenniumInstitute,Westmead,NSW,Australia Email: wieland.meyer@sydney.edu.au Email: laszlo.irinyi@sydney.edu.au Email: tania.sorrell@sydney.edu.au

Michael Desmond Connole: Veterinary Mycologist

Veterinary mycology is often a neglected field in veterinary medicine with many veterinarians treating infections empirically, or failing to send samples to diagnostic laboratories for identification. Few researchers undertake projects in this field. However, between 1968 and 1992 there was a major veterinary mycology laboratory in Australia. This laboratory was established at the Animal Research Institute, Yeerongpilly by Michael Desmond Connole known to friends and colleagues as “Des”. Des was actively engaged in research, training, diagnosis and control of veterinary mycoses in Australia for nearly 50 years. He is an international figure in the field of mycoses and has over 45 publications including: “A review of animal mycosis in Australia”, which was published in Mycopathologia in 1990. Des specialised in the isolation of fungi including dermatophytes, zygomycetes, pathogenic hyphomycetes and mycotoxin producers. This article honours Des’s contribution to veterinary mycology in Australia and internationally.

In vitro susceptibility of fluconazole-susceptible and -resistant isolates of Malassezia pachydermatis against azoles

Objectives The first aim of this study was to evaluate the in vitro efficacies of fluconazole, ketoconazole, itraconazole and voriconazole on M. pachydermatis growth inhibition. This study also evaluated M. pachydermatis azole cross-resistance, comparing wild clinical isolates and the same isolates with in vitro-induced fluconazole resistance. Methods Two techniques were used: (1) a broth microdilution method based on protocol M27-A3 from the Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute to determine the minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) and (2) the Fekete-Forgács method to induce fluconazole resistance in vitro. The isolates were divided into two groups: group 1 included fluconazole-susceptible clinical isolates ( n = 30) and group 2 contained the same isolates with in vitro-induced fluconazole resistance ( n = 30). Results The two groups exhibited differences in susceptibility ( p < 0.001). Group 1 isolates were susceptible to azoles: ketoconazole (MIC 0.01–1.0 μg/mL), itraconazole (MIC 0.01–1.0 μg/mL), voriconazole (MIC 0.01–4.0 μg/mL), and fluconazole (MIC 0.01–4.0 μg/mL). Group 2 isolates demonstrated a wider range of MICs to azoles: ITZ (MIC 0.06–64.0 μg/mL), KTZ (MIC 0.25–32.0 μg/mL), VRZ (MIC 2.0–128.0 μg/mL), and FLZ (MIC 64.0–128.0 μg/mL). Conclusions It was shown that FLZ-resistant M. pachydermatis isolates exhibit cross-resistance to other azoles, reinforcing the importance of susceptibility tests as a guide for the therapeutic prescription of antifungals in medical and veterinary mycology.

Early interactions of Flavobacterium psychrophilum with macrophages of rainbow trout Oncorhynchus mykiss

The early interactions of a low and a highly virulent Flavobacterium psychrophilum strain with head kidney and spleen macrophages of rainbow trout Oncorhynchus mykiss were characterized. The highly virulent strain was killed 5.8 to 11 times less frequently than the low virulent strain. The head kidney macrophages showed a microbicidal activity approximately twice as high as that of the spleen macrophages. A 2- to 3-fold higher production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) was induced by the highly virulent strain than by the low virulent one. The head kidney macrophages produced approximately twice as much ROS as the spleen macrophages. The low virulent strain was killed approximately 10 times more frequently by H2O2 than was the highly virulent strain. In spleen macrophages, the highly virulent strain caused twice as much cytotoxic effects compared to the low virulent strain. In conclusion, virulence in F. psychrophilum appears to be correlated with higher O. mykiss macrophage cytotoxicity and resistance to ROS and, therefore, with enhanced resistance to bacterial killing. Moreover, due to lower ROS production, spleen macrophages have a lower antimicrobial action against F. psychrophilum, compared to head kidney macrophages and, thus, might form a 'safe site' in which bacteria can reside.

TRICHOSPORON ASAHII AS AN EMERGING ETIOLOGIC AGENT OF DISSEMINATED TRICHOSPORONOSIS: A CASE REPORT AND AN UPDATE

Purpose: To report a fatal case of disseminated trichosporonosis caused by Trichosporon asahii in a patient with acute myeloblastic leukemia (AML) and to present an update on systemic trichosporonosis with special reference to India. Methods: The diagnosis was based on repeated demonstration of budding yeast cells and arthroconidia by direct microscopic examination of sputum and by isolation of T. asahii in culture of sputum and blood. The update is largely based upon literature search in Medline and Review of Medical and Veterinary Mycology. Results: A 41-year-old male presented with acute myeloblastic leukemia, cough and fever. He had received cytotoxic drug therapy, broad spectrum antibiotics and was neutropenic. Trichosporon asahii was repeatedly demonstrated in his sputum by direct microscopy and culture, and also isolated from blood. It was identified by appropriate morphological and physiological characteristics viz., arthroconidium formation, diazonium blue B reaction, urease activity and assimilation of carbon and nitrogen compounds. The identification was confirmed by PCR amplification and direct DNA sequencing of internally transcribed spacer (ITS) 1 and ITS2 of rDNA. Conclusion: With greater awareness of etiologic significance of T.asahii, trichosporonosis is likely to be recognised more frequently than apparent from the available published reports.

From magic to science: a journey throughout Latin American medical mycology

The start of Latin America's love story with fungi may be placed in pre-Hispanic times when the use of fungi in both ritual ceremonies and daily life were common to the native civilizations. But the medical mycology discipline in Latin America started at the end of the 19th Century. At that time, scholars such as A. Posadas, R. Seeber, A. Lutz and P. Almeida, discovered agents of fungal diseases, the study of which has influenced the regional research ever since. Heirs to them are the researchers that today thrive in regional Universities and Research Institutes. Two current initiatives improve cooperation among Latin American medical mycologists. First, the periodical organization of International Paracoccidioidomycosis Meetings (seven so far, from 1979 to 1999); second, the creation of the Latin American Association for Mycology in 1991 (three Congresses, from 1993 to 1999). Latin American publications have increased in international specialized journals such as that from our Society (ISHAM) (from 8% in 1967 to 19% in 1999), and the Iberoamerican Journal of Mycology (Revista Iberoamericana de Micologia; > 40% from 1997 to 1999). In addition, Latin American participation at ISHAM International Congresses has risen from 6.9% in 1975 to 21.3% in 1997, and 43.2% at the 14th ISHAM Congress, held for the first time in a Latin American country, Argentina. A significant contribution of women to the scientific establishment of Latin American medical mycology (e.g., 45% of Latin American papers vs. 18% of other regions published in Journal of Medical and Veterinary Mycology in 1987, had women as authors or coauthors) suggests a better academic consideration of Latin American women against their counterparts in the developed world. Taken together, all these figures reflect the enthusiasm of our Latin American colleagues in the field, despite the difficulties that afflict our region, and affect our work.

Systems Not Projects: focusing on evaluating overall student experience, rather than isolated innovations

ABSTRACT This article describes evaluation of the Veterinary Bacteriology and Mycology problem‐based learning multimedia project at the University of Melbourne over a period of seven years. The design of the initial project will be described, together with learning benefits that short‐term evaluations revealed — including better information management skills, improved higher order cognitive skills, increased interest in the subject, better collaborative learning skills, better written and oral communication skills and better computer skills. All very impressive. However, follow‐up studies with staff and students in clinical years of the veterinary course indicated clearly that the positive benefits were not sustained in the long term, as this was a once‐off experience for students. We clearly needed a new approach. Since 1995, the institutional climate, opportunities provided by new technologies and international links have shifted the policy in the Faculty of Veterinary Science towards the development of online problem‐based subjects, hopefully enabling students to have a much greater exposure to a problem‐based learning approach.

Health risks in connection with fungi: a contribution to the assessment of fungi in the risk potential of safety provisions

Fungi have been used for a long time in industrial production. Recent developments in biotechnology have lead to an increased awareness of possible health hazards connected with the use of microorganisms in industries. In order to avoid potential risks by appropriate protective measures it is necessary to assess the microorganisms, including fungi, with respect to their species-related risk potential. For this purpose, fungi were classified into three risk groups of which group I contains non-hazardous fungi and group III fungi with high risk. Most difficulties arise when it is to be decided if a fungus belongs to group I or group II which includes most pathogenic fungi. The present study was designed to provide data which facilitate the assessment of potentially hazardous fungi. It is based on the evaluation of the pertinent mycological literature as represented in the Review of Medical and Veterinary Mycology in the years from 1980 till 1989.

Perspectivas de la investigación en micología

Se presenta un panorama sobre las posibilidades de investigación que hay en el campo de la micología. Se indican las vastas perspectivas que existen en este campo sin precisar muchos detalles sobre cada una de las grandes ramas de la micología dada la gran variedad de las mismas. Concretamente, se comenta sobre diversas perspectivas de investigación en las siguientes áreas: 1) taxonomía y biogeografía, 2) ecología y evolución, 3) biología celular, biología molecular y genética, 4) bioquímica, biofísica y fisiología, 5) biotecnología, 6) micología forestal y agrícola y fitopatología, 7) micología médica humana y veterinaria.