Veterinary Drug Diclofenac Research Articles

Himalayan Vultures in Khodpe, far-west Nepal: is there any threat?

<p>There is evidence that Himalayan Vulture <em>Gyps himalayensis</em> is susceptible to the veterinary drug diclofenac, which is responsible for the decline of other <em>Gyps </em>species across South Asia. Unlike other <em>Gyps </em>species, there is little quantitative data to assess Himalayan Vultures population. Based on observation, we analyzed the flock size and breeding success of the Himalayan Vultures on two cliffs of Khodpe in Baitadi District, far-west Nepal. The mean flock size of Himalayan Vulture was 25.83±6.33. Overall breeding success was 90.9% based on active nests. We also conducted a questionnaire survey to assess the perceived threats in the view of local people to vultures and these threats include loss of food, veterinary drug, lack of proper nest sites, and lack of public awareness. Additionally, 76% of the respondents felt that vultures were decreasing in the area, 94.7% were not aware of the toxicity of diclofenac to vultures, and very few (2%) knew about the availability of meloxicam as a safe alternative drug. The colony we studied is one of the few remaining known breeding populations, which provide baseline information from far-west Nepal, thus we recommend for conservation and continuous monitoring of this species to understand their population change and breeding biology.</p><div> </div>

First evidence that populations of the critically endangered Long-billed Vulture Gyps indicus in Pakistan have increased following the ban of the toxic veterinary drug diclofenac in south Asia

SummaryThe cliff-nesting Long-billed Vulture Gyps indicus is one of four critically endangered Asian Vultures. In India, this species has declined catastrophically, but in Pakistan only small population declines have been recorded. Mortality of this species has been linked to poisoning by veterinary diclofenac, which was banned throughout south Asia in 2006. Between 2003 and 2012 we measured abundance of adult, sub-adult, juvenile, and dead vultures, and nest occupancy and productivity at the largest known Long-billed Vulture colony in Pakistan. We compared population parameters from before (2003−2006) and after (2007−2012) the ban on veterinary diclofenac. Our data and models indicate that vulture abundance, nest occupancy, and nest productivity declined 61%, 73%, and 95%, respectively, in the three years before the diclofenac ban, and then increased 1–2 years after the ban by 55%, 52%, and 95%. Furthermore, we observed 87% of total vulture mortalities prior to the diclofenac ban. Our results demonstrate for the first time since the onset of the Asian vulture crisis that the ban on veterinary diclofenac is an effective management tool for reversing Long-billed Vulture population declines.

Vulture Poisoning Incidents and the Status of Vultures in Zambia and Malawi

Asia and Africa have experienced recent catastrophic declines in populations of most species of vultures (Thiollay 2006, Ogada et al. 2011, Virani et al. 2011). While the declines in Asia have been linked to poisoning by the veterinary drug diclofenac (Oaks et al. 2004), the reasons for the declines across Africa remain poorly understood (Ogada et al. 2011), and are likely to have multiple causes, such as poisoning and a decline in food supply.

Dropping dead: causes and consequences of vulture population declines worldwide

Vultures are nature's most successful scavengers, and they provide an array of ecological, economic, and cultural services. As the only known obligate scavengers, vultures are uniquely adapted to a scavenging lifestyle. Vultures' unique adaptations include soaring flight, keen eyesight, and extremely low pH levels in their stomachs. Presently, 14 of 23 (61%) vulture species worldwide are threatened with extinction, and the most rapid declines have occurred in the vulture-rich regions of Asia and Africa. The reasons for the population declines are varied, but poisoning or human persecution, or both, feature in the list of nearly every declining species. Deliberate poisoning of carnivores is likely the most widespread cause of vulture poisoning. In Asia, Gyps vultures have declined by >95% due to poisoning by the veterinary drug diclofenac, which was banned by regional governments in 2006. Human persecution of vultures has occurred for centuries, and shooting and deliberate poisoning are the most widely practiced activities. Ecological consequences of vulture declines include changes in community composition of scavengers at carcasses and an increased potential for disease transmission between mammalian scavengers at carcasses. There have been cultural and economic costs of vulture declines as well, particularly in Asia. In the wake of catastrophic vulture declines in Asia, regional governments, the international scientific and donor communities, and the media have given the crisis substantial attention. Even though the Asian vulture crisis focused attention on the plight of vultures worldwide, the situation for African vultures has received relatively little attention especially given the similar levels of population decline. While the Asian crisis has been largely linked to poisoning by diclofenac, vulture population declines in Africa have numerous causes, which have made conserving existing populations more difficult. And in Africa there has been little government support to conserve vultures despite mounting evidence of the major threats. In other regions with successful vulture conservation programs, a common theme is a huge investment of financial resources and highly skilled personnel, as well as political will and community support.

Assessing the ongoing threat from veterinary non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs to Critically Endangered Gyps vultures in India

AbstractUse of the veterinary drug diclofenac is responsible for bringing three species of Gyps vultures endemic to South Asia to the brink of extinction, and the Government of India banned veterinary use of the drug in May 2006. To evaluate the effectiveness of the ban we undertook surveys of > 250 veterinary and general pharmacies in 11 Indian states from November 2007 to June 2010. Twelve different classes of non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) were purchased from 176 pharmacies. Other than meloxicam (of negligible toxicity to vultures at likely concentrations in their food), diclofenac and ketoprofen (both toxic to vultures), little is known of the safety or toxicity of the remaining nine NSAIDs on sale. Meloxicam was the most commonly encountered drug, sold in 70% of pharmacies, but 50% of the meloxicam brands sold had paracetamol (acetaminophen) as a second ingredient. Diclofenac and ketoprofen were recorded in 36 and 29% of pharmacies, respectively, with states in western and central India having the highest prevalence of diclofenac (44–45%). Although the large number of manufacturers and availability of meloxicam is encouraging, the wide range of untested NSAIDs and continued availability of diclofenac is a major source of concern. Circumvention of the 2006 diclofenac ban is being achieved by illegally selling forms of diclofenac manufactured for human use for veterinary purposes. To provide a safer environment for vultures in South Asia we recommend reducing the size of vials of diclofenac meant for human use, to increase the costs of illegal veterinary use, and taking action against pharmaceutical manufacturers and pharmacies flouting the diclofenac ban.

Effectiveness of Action in India to Reduce Exposure of Gyps Vultures to the Toxic Veterinary Drug Diclofenac

Contamination of their carrion food supply with the non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug diclofenac has caused rapid population declines across the Indian subcontinent of three species of Gyps vultures endemic to South Asia. The governments of India, Pakistan and Nepal took action in 2006 to prevent the veterinary use of diclofenac on domesticated livestock, the route by which contamination occurs. We analyse data from three surveys of the prevalence and concentration of diclofenac residues in carcasses of domesticated ungulates in India, carried out before and after the implementation of a ban on veterinary use. There was little change in the prevalence and concentration of diclofenac between a survey before the ban and one conducted soon after its implementation, with the percentage of carcasses containing diclofenac in these surveys estimated at 10.8 and 10.7%, respectively. However, both the prevalence and concentration of diclofenac had fallen markedly 7–31 months after the implementation of the ban, with the true prevalence in this third survey estimated at 6.5%. Modelling of the impact of this reduction in diclofenac on the expected rate of decline of the oriental white-backed vulture (Gyps bengalensis) in India indicates that the decline rate has decreased to 40% of the rate before the ban, but is still likely to be rapid (about 18% year−1). Hence, further efforts to remove diclofenac from vulture food are still needed if the future recovery or successful reintroduction of vultures is to be feasible.

Historical and current status of vultures in Myanmar

SummaryConcerns for the long-term survival of vulture populations on the Indian Subcontinent, owing to widespread poisoning by the veterinary drug diclofenac, have led to increased conservation focus on South-East Asian countries where diclofenac is not used and relict populations of vultures occur. We document here how White-rumped, Slender-billed and Red-headed Vultures have declined substantially in abundance and contracted in range in Myanmar over the last 50 years. Using a vulture restaurant method we determined that the population of vultures in Myanmar is at least 136 individuals, made up of at least: 62 White-rumped Vultures, 21 Slender-billed Vultures, 51 Himalayan Vultures and two Red-headed Vultures. The decline in the resident Gyps species is most likely due to declines in wild ungulate populations. Our population estimates are provisional and the survey covered only a proportion of the possible vulture range within Myanmar. Himalayan Vultures were not recorded in Myanmar in historical times, and possible reasons for the recent upsurge in records are discussed. Myanmar presents an opportunity of global significance for vulture conservation, due to the persistence of three Critically Endangered vulture species in a country where diclofenac is not used.

Rapid population declines of Himalayan Griffon Gyps himalayensis in Upper Mustang, Nepal

SummaryThe population collapse of resident Gyps vulture species in South Asia, caused by the use of a veterinary drug diclofenac, has highlighted an urgent need to monitor numbers of other vulture species in the region. This study assessed population trends of Himalayan Griffon Gyps himalayensis in the mountainous region of Upper Mustang, Nepal, which is an important breeding area for the species. Vultures were surveyed in 2002, 2004 and 2005 by recording the number of birds sighted along 188 km of transects, and observing numbers of birds at breeding colonies. The number of birds recorded per day and per kilometre of transect declined by 67% and 70% respectively over the period of study. The number of active nests declined by 84% from 2002 to 2005. The veterinary drug diclofenac was available in pharmacies in the Mustang region. Young Himalayan Griffons, which migrate to the lowland areas of Nepal and, in increasing numbers to India, are highly likely to be subject to diclofenac poisoning. If this rate of population decline occurs throughout the Himalayan region, the conservation status of the species will need to be urgently reassessed.

Collapse of Asian vulture populations: risk of mortality from residues of the veterinary drug diclofenac in carcasses of treated cattle

Summary The populations of three species of South Asian vultures (Gyps bengalensis, Gyps indicus and Gyps tenuirostris) have declined rapidly within the last decade and all are now critically endangered. Veterinary use of the non‐steroidal anti‐inflammatory drug diclofenac appears to be a major cause of the declines. Vultures are likely to be exposed to the drug when they feed on carcasses of livestock that were treated with diclofenac before death. We measured the concentration of diclofenac in the tissues of treated Indian humped and European cattle (Bos indicus and Bos taurus) in relation to the interval between dosing and death. We used a dose–response model to assess the risk posed to wild vultures if they feed on carcasses of treated livestock. Diclofenac concentrations in fat, intestine, kidney and liver were considerably higher than those in muscle, but concentrations in the first four tissues initially depleted more rapidly (half‐life 6–8 h) with time since the last injection of the drug, compared with muscle (half‐life 15 h). Depletion rates became much slower in all tissues 25–98 h after the last injection. Diclofenac concentration, averaged across the carcass, was enough to cause appreciable mortality (> 10% of birds per meal) if oriental white‐backed vultures G. bengalensis were to take a large meal from the carcass of an animal that was given its last dose of the drug within a day or two before death. Vultures that feed selectively on tissues with high concentrations of the drug, such as kidney, liver and intestine, would be exposed to a higher risk and for longer after dosing. Synthesis and applications. The tissues of cattle treated with diclofenac are a hazard to wild vultures that feed on an animal that dies within a few days after treatment. Intestine, kidney and liver have the highest diclofenac concentrations, but the concentration averaged across all the edible tissues of the carcass is also hazardous. Withdrawal of diclofenac from veterinary use on animals whose carcasses may become available to scavenging vultures is recommended. In ex situ and in situ conservation projects, vultures should be fed on carcasses of animals that are known not to have been treated with diclofenac in the week before death.

An Overview of Vulture Conservation in Nepal

Two species of vulture White-rumped Gyps bengalensis and Slender-billed G. tenuirostris are in grave danger of extinction with rapid decline throughout their ranges in Nepal with the complete loss of breeding colonies and local extinctions increasingly taking place. Nepal Government has already banned veterinary drug diclofenac which is the major cause of decline due to poisoning in food supply. Meloxicam has been widely promoted as the safe replacement of Diclofenac. Captive population have been established at Kasara, Chitwan National Park for future reintroduction. To reduce mortality in the wild in situ measures have been initiated through establishment of vulture restaurants as safe feeding sites. Key Words: Critically endangered, Diclofenac, Meloxicam, Conservation, Breeding centre, Vulture restaurant DOI: 10.3126/init.v3i0.2502 The Initiation Vol.3 2009 p.114-118