VCSEL Research Articles

Design of a calibratable optical antenna system based on ring array light source

Abstract This study presents a multi-wavelength, multi-channel, and high-capacity optical antenna system. This approach is intended to allow parallel transmission with many channels and wavelengths by employing a ring array of vertical-cavity surface-emitting lasers, with reception accomplished via a ring detector array. The system employs spatially multiplexed techniques to send the target with numerous independent signals at the same time, effectively increasing bandwidth and reducing signal interference. The method used in this design provides benefits such as effective decreasing losses caused by blocking and removing aberrations. To overcome the spatial alignment difficulty caused by the array light source's tiny beam size during long-distance transmission, this study introduces a high-precision acquisition, pointing, and tracking system as a reverse communication channel. The system's wide beam can be used to align the installation of optical antenna equipment and facilitate information transmission.

Versatile VCSEL source of thermal and super-thermal light.

We have built highly controllable sources of thermal and super-thermal states on the basis of a single-mode (SM) and a multi-mode (MM) vertical cavity surface emitting laser (VCSEL) with noised driving current operating above the threshold. Varying the average driving current and the amplitude and bandwidth of noise, one can robustly obtain light with the temporal second-order intensity correlation function reaching 2.5 and correlation times from 1 µs to 10 ns. For the SM VCSEL, generated thermal lights retain its single-mode quality negating a need for a spectral filtering. For the MM VCSEL, one can still find a near-threshold regime when the generated thermal radiation is close to a single-mode one.

Electrical liquid crystal integration with VCSEL arrays for tunable orthogonal polarization laser

Vertical-cavity surface-emitting laser (VCSEL) arrays that can emit orthogonally polarized light have shown broad application potential and market demand in the fields of optical communication, optical sensors, and biomedicine. Two kinds of polarization-switching VCSEL arrays based on anti-parallel (AP) oriented liquid crystal (LC) external cavities and twisted nematic (TN) oriented LC external cavities are proposed in this paper. The light is independently guided by the LC electrically, achieving uniform lasing of linearly polarized light with mutually orthogonal polarization modes and equal power. The uniformity and polarization tunable ability of the lasing orthogonally polarized light power is guaranteed by the integration of the LC external cavity and the VCSEL array.

Enhanced performance of GaN based VCSELs through graded electron-blocking layer design

Electron leakage from the active region to the p-type region restricts the performance of GaN-based Vertical-Cavity Surface-Emitting Lasers (VCSELs). AlGaN EBL can decrease the leakage current, but also raises the hole injection barrier and reduce the hole injection efficiency. Then, it is important to design EBL structures that can enhance both electron blocking and hole injection. In this study, VCSEL devices with three different EBL, basic structure Al0.6Ga0.4N EBL labeled as Device A, newly proposed 16 nm thick Al0.75–0.80Ga0.25–0.20N EBL labeled as Device B, and 18 nm thick Al0.75–0.80Ga0.25–0.20N EBL labeled as Device C, respectively, are designed and analyzed using PICS 3D simulation. Device A represents a basic VCSEL structure, while Device C incorporates a graded electron-blocking layer (EBL) with adjusted thickness. Through simulation results, it is observed that the introduction of a graded EBL in Device C leads to significant performance enhancements compared to the basic structure of Device A. Specifically, the graded EBL effectively reduces band bending and increases the electron barrier height, thereby improving carrier confinement and reducing electron leakage. Additionally, the utilize of a Graded structure in Device C aids in strain relief at the layout between the QB and EBL, resulting in improved electron-blocking capability and potentially enhanced hole transport characteristics. These findings underscore the importance of EBL grading in optimizing the performance of VCSELs, highlighting its potential for advancing the efficiency and functionality of these semiconductor devices. Power of the device C is being improved upto 4.16%, similarly the conduction band barrier height is improved upto 26.6% which is beneficial for better VCSEL performance as it enhances electron confinement in the active region, leading to increased efficiency and reduced carrier leakage and valance band barrier height decreases upto 6.52% and threshold current is decreased upto 4.8% so if valence band barrier height decrease the hole injection efficiency increases and if threshold current decreases the emitting power of the device increase.

Photonic reservoir computing for parallel task processing based on a feedback-free spin-polarized VCSEL

Time delayed reservoir computing (RC) is a novel artificial neural network that is easy to implement in hardware due to its extremely simple structure. Because of its time-division multiplexed information processing, laser-based photonic time-delayed RCs usually realize parallel processing with polarization/wavelength multiplexing. However, the performance of two different tasks is difficult to regulate separately and simultaneously in the time delayed RC system, especially for the chip-scale configuration. Here, we propose a feedback-free RC system based on a spin-polarized vertical-cavity surface-emitting semiconductor laser (VCSEL), which simplifies the whole system structure and can process time series prediction and waveform recognition tasks in parallel, with employing the input and output coding to provide the effect from past states. By separately setting the number of past states introduced by the coding for the two tasks, the performance of the two tasks can be adjusted respectively. Furthermore, by appropriately tuning the pump polarization ellipticity which is the unique feature for the spin-polarized VCSEL, the computational ability of the proposed RC can be focused on one of the two parallel tasks. Therefore, the proposed RC system is capable of dealing with different tasks with high performance, and also expected to provide a viable solution for integrated neuromorphic computing systems due to its compact, feedback-free structure.

Multimode light generation in an injection semiconductor laser based on a chiral AlAs/(Al, Ga)As/GaAs microcavity

Experimental investigations of chiral injection AlAs/(Al, Ga)As/GaAs vertical-cavity surface-emitting lasers in the multimode generation regime are performed. A high circular polarization degree 70% of different generation modes measured with a high spectral resolution, is demonstrated. Detailed maps of spatial and angular distribution of laser radiation intensity were constructed.

On the relationship between electrical and electro-optical characteristics in vertical cavity surface emitting lasers for chip scale Rb atomic clocks

We report on a comprehensive study of the electrical and electro-optical properties of 795 nm vertical cavity surface emitting lasers (VCSELs) designed for chip scale Rb atomic clocks. We highlight several key findings including the observation that the current flow at moderate bias levels comprises several parallel paths which are identified by an analysis of the I−V characteristic also confirmed by a numerical simulation. Resistance is a key parameter in any VCSEL. We analyze it in detail at all bias levels and find that above transparency, when the VCSEL enters the high injection regime, the current flow mechanism is modified significantly from an exponential to a power law characteristic. Consequently, resistance attains a nonlinear contribution which is quadratic in the spontaneous emission regime and quasi-linear above the threshold. This nonlinear contribution is not considered in common models. The optoelectronic properties are strongly correlated with the electrical characteristics what allow to explain several peculiarities of the VCSEL performance. We designed and fabricated the VCSELs according to the requirements of miniature Rb atomic clocks, including optimal operation at high temperatures. Their minimum threshold occurs at 363 K where they emit at 794.7 nm. The modal and polarization discrimination in the bias range where these VCSELs operate in practical miniature atomic clocks is well above 30 dB.

Learning Gradient-Based Feed-Forward Equalizer for VCSELs

Vertical cavity surface-emitting laser (VCSEL)-based optical interconnects (OI) are crucial for high-speed data transmission in data centers, supercomputers, and vehicles, yet their performance is challenged by harsh and fluctuating thermal conditions. This paper addresses these challenges by integrating an ordinary differential equation (ODE) solver within the VCSEL communication chain, leveraging the adjoint method to enable effective gradient-based optimization of pre-equalizer weights. We propose a machine learning (ML) approach to optimize feed-forward equalizer (FFE) weights for VCSEL transceivers, which significantly enhances signal integrity by managing inter-symbol interference (ISI) and reducing the symbol error rate (SER).

Stable Single-Mode 795 nm Vertical-Cavity Surface-Emitting Laser for Quantum Sensing.

Vertical-cavity surface-emitting lasers (VCSELs) are essential for exhibiting single-transverse-mode output characteristics, which are critical for applications in quantum sensing, optical interconnection, and laser printing. In this study, we achieved stable single-transverse-mode lasing using extended-2λ-cavity with an oxide aperture diameter of 7.08 μm. The device demonstrated a high output power of 6.8 mW and a narrow linewidth of 49.8 MHz at room temperature. Additionally, it maintained stable single-mode emission at 794.8 nm and achieved a side-mode suppression ratio (SMSR) exceeding 40 dB within the temperature range of 25 °C~85 °C, thereby meeting the requirements of 87Rb atom quantum sensors. The fabricated device obtained high-power and narrow linewidth single-transverse-mode operation by a monolithic extended cavity without introducing additional processing procedures, which is expected to promote the commercial viability of VCSELs in quantum sensing.

Single-fundamental-mode cryogenic (3.6 K) 850-nm oxide-confined VCSEL

Cryogenic oxide-confined vertical-cavity surface-emitting laser (VCSEL) has promising application in cryogenic optical interconnect for cryogenic computing. In this paper, we demonstrate a cryogenic 850-nm oxide-confined VCSEL at around 4 K. The cryogenic VCSEL with an optical oxide aperture of 6.5 μm in diameter can operate in single fundamental mode with a side-mode suppression-ratio of 36 dB at 3.6 K, and the fiber-coupled output power reaches 1 mW at 5 mA. The small signal modulation measurements at 298 and 292 K show the fabricated VCSEL has the potential to achieve a high modulation bandwidth at cryogenic temperature.

Progress in Research on Co-Packaged Optics

In the 5G era, the demand for high-bandwidth computing, transmission, and storage has led to the development of optoelectronic interconnect technology. This technology has evolved from traditional board-edge optical modules to smaller and more integrated solutions. Co-packaged optics (CPO) has evolved as a solution to meet the growing demand for data. Compared to typical optoelectronic connectivity technology, CPO presents distinct benefits in terms of bandwidth, size, weight, and power consumption. This study presents an overview of CPO, highlighting its fundamental principles, advantages, and distinctive features. Additionally, it examines the current research progress of two distinct approaches utilizing Vertical-Cavity Surface-Emitting Laser (VCSEL) and silicon photonics integration technology. Additionally, it provides a concise overview of the many application situations of CPO. Expanding on this, the analysis focuses on the CPO using 2D, 2.5D, and 3D packaging techniques. Lastly, taking into account the present technological environment, the scientific obstacles encountered by CPO are analyzed, and its future progress is predicted.

A Modified Current-Mode VCSEL Driver for Short-Range LiDAR Sensor Applications in 180 nm CMOS

This paper presents a modified current-mode vertical-cavity surface-emitting laser (VCSEL) driver as a transmitter for short-range light detection and ranging (LiDAR) sensors, where a stable bias generator is suggested with a regulated cascode current mirror circuit to provide the bias current of 1 mA with a trivial deviation of 5.4%, even at the worst-case process–voltage–temperature (PVT) variations. Also, a modified current-steering logic circuit is exploited with N-type MOSFET (NMOS) switches to deliver the modulation currents of 0.1~10 mApp to the VCSEL diode simultaneously, with no overshoot distortions. Post-layout simulations of the modified current-mode VCSEL driver (m-CMVD), using 180 nm CMOS technology, demonstrate very large and clean output pulses with significantly reduced signal distortions. Hereby, the VCSEL diode is transformed into an equivalent circuit with a 1.6 V DC voltage and a 50 Ω resistor for circuit simulations. The proposed m-CMVD consumes a maximum of 11 mW from a 3.3 V supply voltage and the chip core occupies an area of 0.196 mm2.

Magnetic resonance linewidths independent with the laser linewidth in coherent population trapping (CPT) magnetometers

Coherent population trapping (CPT) magnetometers are the magnetic measuring instrument that utilize the interference effect between light and atoms. It has a broad range of applications in weak magnetic measurement. However, current CPT magnetometers have low sensitivity, which does not satisfy the ultra-high sensitivity requirements of weak magnetic measurement. This paper is aimed to improve this problem by studying the relationship between the sensitivity of CPT magnetometer and the laser linewidth. It has been concluded that the magnetic resonance linewidth of the CPT system remains independent of the laser linewidth according to the Liouville equation, firstly. Furthermore, the correctness of this theory has been verified through design experiments. Additionally, we have identified certain issues that require attention in the miniaturization and chip-scale CPT magnetometer on vertical cavity surface emitting laser (VCSEL).

Proposal and detailed theoretical analysis on a photonic neural network with optically pumped Spin-VCSEL spiking neurons

A dual-layer photonic spiking neural network (PSNN) was constructed, where multiple optically pumped spin vertical-cavity surface-emitting lasers (Spin-VCSELs) were proposed as spiking neurons. Based on a detailed theoretical analysis of leaky integrate-and-fire (LIF) and refractory period characteristics of Spin-VCSEL neurons, the training and testing performance for the studied PSNN was evaluated using two standard pattern classification tasks (Iris dataset, simple digit recognition). The results showed that, by selecting appropriate parameters such as frequency detuning and number of pre-synaptic neurons, etc., higher training/testing accuracies beyond 90% can be obtained. When compared with traditional electrically pumped VCSEL, a threshold reduction of up to 50% can be achieved under nanosecond scale spin relaxation time and circular polarization optical pumping, the feasibility of realizing high accuracy (88%) pattern classification near the reduced threshold was also verified. Therefore, optically pumped Spin-VCSEL neurons can become a valuable new choice for high-performance PSNN with reduced power consumption.

Measuring Transverse Relaxation with a Single-Beam 894 nm VCSEL for Cs-Xe NMR Gyroscope Miniaturization.

The spin-exchange-pumped nuclear magnetic resonance gyroscope (NMRG) is a pivotal tool in quantum navigation. The transverse relaxation of atoms critically impacts the NMRG's performance parameters and is essential for judging normal operation. Conventional methods for measuring transverse relaxation typically use dual beams, which involves complex optical path and frequency stabilization systems, thereby complicating miniaturization and integration. This paper proposes a method to construct a 133Cs parametric resonance magnetometer using a single-beam vertical-cavity surface-emitting laser (VCSEL) to measure the transverse relaxation of 129Xe and 131Xe. Based on this method, the volume of the gyroscope probe is significantly reduced to 50 cm3. Experimental results demonstrate that the constructed Cs-Xe NMRG can achieve a transverse relaxation time (T2) of 8.1 s under static conditions. Within the cell temperature range of 70 °C to 110 °C, T2 decreases with increasing temperature, while the signal amplitude inversely increases. The research lays the foundation for continuous measurement operations of miniaturized NMRGs.

Twenty-milliwatt, high-power, high-efficiency, single-mode, multi-junction vertical-cavity surface-emitting lasers using surface microstructures

High-power, high-efficiency single-mode vertical-cavity surface-emitting lasers (VCSELs) are crucial in the realm of green photonics for high-speed optical communication. However, in recent years, the power and efficiency of single-mode VCSELs have remained relatively low and have been progressing slowly. This study combines theoretical models with experiments to show that multi-junction cascaded 940 nm VCSELs based on surface microstructures can achieve high power, high efficiency, and low divergence in single-mode laser output. Simulations show multi-junction VCSELs with surface microstructures can boost mode modulation capabilities, power, and efficiency, potentially allowing high-power single-mode VCSELs to surpass 60% efficiency. Using this technique, the 6 μm oxide aperture VCSELs with surface relief of different diameters were fabricated. The single-mode VCSELs with the output power of 20.2 mW, side-mode suppression ratios greater than 35 dB, 42% electro-optical efficiency, and a 9.8° divergence angle (at 1/e2) under continuous-wave operation were demonstrated. Near-field images verified its fundamental mode operation. To the best of the authors’ knowledge, this is the highest single-mode power recorded for a single-unit VCSEL to date, almost twice the currently known record, while still maintaining a very high electro-optical conversion efficiency. This research will provide valuable references for the further development and application of high-power, high-efficiency single-mode semiconductor lasers.

Neural Network Equalisation for High-Speed Eye-Safe Optical Wireless Communication with 850 nm SM-VCSELs

In this paper, we experimentally illustrate the effectiveness of neural networks (NNs) as non-linear equalisers for multilevel pulse amplitude modulation (PAM-M) transmission over an optical wireless communication (OWC) link. In our study, we compare the bit-error-rate (BER) performances of two decision feedback equalisers (DFEs)—a multilayer-perceptron-based DFE (MLPDFE), which is the NN equaliser, and a transversal DFE (TRDFE)—under two degrees of non-linear distortion using an eye-safe 850 nm single-mode vertical-cavity surface-emitting laser (SM-VCSEL). Our results consistently show that the MLPDFE delivers superior performance in comparison to the TRDFE, particularly in scenarios involving high non-linear distortion and PAM constellations with eight or more levels. At a forward error correction (FEC) threshold BER of 0.0038, we achieve bit rates of ~28 Gbps, ~29 Gbps, ~22.5 Gbps, and ~5 Gbps using PAM schemes with 2, 4, 8, and 16 levels, respectively, with the MLPDFE. Comparably, the TRDFE yields bit rates of ~28 Gbps and ~29 Gbps with PAM-2 and PAM-4, respectively. Higher PAM levels with the TRDFE result in BERs greater than 0.0038 for bit rates above 2 Gbps. These results highlight the effectiveness of the MLPDFE in optimising the performance of SM-VCSEL-based OWC systems across different modulation schemes and non-linear distortion levels.

Blue Perovskite Lasing Derived from Bound Excitons through Defect Engineering.

All-inorganic perovskite films have emerged as promising candidates for laser gain materials owing to their outstanding optoelectronic properties and straightforward solution processing. However, the performance of blue perovskite lasing still lags far behind due to the inevitable high density of defects. Herein, we demonstrate that defects can be utilized instead of passivated/removed to form bound excitons to achieve excellent blue stimulated emission in perovskite films. Such a strategy emphasizes defect engineering by introducing a deep-level defect in mixed-Rb/Cs perovskite films through octylammonium bromide (OABr) additives. Consequently, the OA-Rb/Cs perovskite films exhibit blue amplified spontaneous emission (ASE) from defect-related bound excitons with a low threshold (13.5 μJ/cm2) and a high optical gain (744.7 cm-1), which contribute to a vertical-cavity surface-emitting laser with single-mode blue emission at 482 nm. This work not only presents a facile method for creating blue laser gain materials but also provides valuable insights for further exploration of high-performance blue lasing in perovskite films.

Bose–Einstein condensation of photons in a vertical-cavity surface-emitting laser

Many bosons can occupy a single quantum state without a limit. It is described by the quantum-mechanical Bose–Einstein statistic, which allows Bose–Einstein condensation at low temperatures and high particle densities. Photons, historically the first considered bosonic gas, were late to show this phenomenon, observed in rhodamine-filled microcavities and doped fibre cavities. These findings have raised the question of whether condensation is also common in other laser systems with potential technological applications. Here we show the Bose–Einstein condensation of photons in a broad-area vertical-cavity surface-emitting laser with a slight cavity-gain spectral detuning. We observed a Bose–Einstein condensate in the fundamental transversal optical mode at a critical phase-space density. The experimental results follow the equation of state for a two-dimensional gas of bosons in thermal equilibrium, although the extracted spectral temperatures were lower than the device’s. This is interpreted as originating from the driven-dissipative nature of the photon gas. In contrast, non-equilibrium lasing action is observed in the higher-order modes in more negatively detuned device. Our work opens the way for the potential exploration of superfluid physics of interacting photons mediated by semiconductor optical nonlinearities. It also shows great promise for enabling single-mode high-power emission from a large-aperture device.

Room-temperature DBR-free VCSEL operation on an InGaN/GaN thin-film platform with a monolithic surface grating.

Vertical-cavity surface-emitting lasers (VCSELs) are pivotal in various applications ranging from data communication to sensing technologies. This study introduces a VCSEL design featuring a monolithic top surface high contrast grating (HCG) reflector on a thin-film substrate, aimed at improving lasing performance while reducing fabrication costs by omitting the use of distributed Bragg reflectors (DBRs). We fabricated the proposed VCSEL with the surface grating and characterized its performance through micro-photoluminescence measurements. The laser demonstrated room-temperature lasing at 436.2 nm with a Q factor of 4600 and a lasing threshold of 5.5 kW/cm2 under optical pumping. The implementation of the surface grating reflector was instrumental in facilitating vertical lasing, significantly improving surface reflectivity compared to conventional flat GaN/air interfaces. This innovative design holds significant promise for the development of cost-effective, DBR-free VCSELs, with potential applications extending to photonic integrated circuits and light detection and ranging (LiDAR) systems.