Vertical Transhumance Research Articles

Goat hair as a bioindicator of environmental contaminants and adrenal activation during vertical transhumance.

Autochthonous breeds of livestock are considered a pivotal genetic resource for agriculture, rural development, and food and nutrition security. In the Italian Alps, local livestock breeds are maintained using the traditional alpine farming system based on vertical transhumance, with the use of alpine pastures from late spring to autumn and indoor housing with a hay-based diet for the remaining part of the year. Because of their tight link with the territory of origin, local breeds could be used to biomonitor environmental contaminations. Moreover, animal welfare should also be monitored during transhumance in animals, which are exposed to a sudden farming system change and different types of stressors. For these reasons, this investigation hypothesized that the content of trace elements, heavy metals, and cortisol in the hair of goats changes during vertical transhumance, possibly reflecting different dietary contents and activity of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis. This study aimed to assess the response of an Italian local goat breed to the change from indoor housing to alpine pasture in summer in terms of hair concentrations of (i) trace elements and heavy metals and (ii) cortisol. The regrown hair of Frisa goats was monthly collected for 2 consecutive years (n = 10 for heavy metals and trace elements and n = 6 for cortisol in 2021, n = 17 for both analyses in 2022), once before vertical transhumance and twice after that event. Hair was then analyzed for trace elements, heavy metals, and cortisol by inductively coupled plasma-optical emission spectrophotometer (ICP-OES) and enzyme immunoassay (EIA), respectively. Data were analyzed by multilevel models. The results showed an increase in As content during alpine pasture (p < 0.01), probably reflecting the soil and water As contents of the grazing area, while Mg, Zn, and Al (p < 0.01) followed the opposite trend, decreasing in the second month after vertical transhumance. Hair cortisol concentrations increased during 2 months of alpine pasture (p < 0.001), indicating an increase in the activation of the HPA axis, in agreement with previous studies. Future investigations can consider a longer study period and the development of ad hoc animal welfare indicators.

Sheep and goat management in the Early Neolithic in the Zagros region (8000–5000 BC): New zooarchaeological and isotopic evidence from Ganj Dareh, Bestansur and Jarmo

The transition from hunter gathering to farming is one of the most important episodes in the history of humankind. Considerable evidence indicates that this shift was a slow, complex, highly localized process, which took place in multiple places in Southwest Asia independently, from around 9500 BC. Caprines were arguably the first domesticated livestock, brought under human control during a process that began in the 9th millennium BC in a region extending from south-eastern Turkey to north-western Iran. In this research we integrate zooarchaeological analysis with stable isotopic data of faunal remains from three key Early Neolithic sites in the Eastern Fertile Crescent: Ganj Dareh (ca. 8000 BC), Bestansur (ca. 7800–7000 BC) and Jarmo (ca. 7000–5000 BC).While some form of goat management seemed to have been practiced at Bestansur, based on spherulites, dung and shed deciduous teeth, no evidence has been found for winter foddering or transhumance practices. At Ganj Dareh goat were managed, and might have been foddered during the winter or vertical transhumance might have taken place. At Pottery Neolithic Jarmo both sheep and goat were managed and they were possibly brought to higher elevations during the summer months or foddered during winter. This research has supported the idea that already during early stages of goat management, humans kept a high degree of control over the population.

Sheep for the soldiers: Stable isotope evidence for sheep management at the Shichengzi fort, Xinjiang and its implications for Han frontier interaction

The territorial expansion of the Han dynasty (202BC – 220AD) created sizeable borderlands, catalyzing interactions between Han military and indigenous communities. At the northwestern periphery of the empire in modern day Xinjiang, military economy reflects the interplay between Han agricultural and indigenous pastoral subsistence. In this study, we sequentially sampled sheep teeth enamel for carbon and oxygen analyses at Shichengzi, a Han dynasty military fort in Xinjiang, attempting to reconstruct the life history of these animals and hence investigate local herding strategies. The sheep isotopic profiles imply that these animals might have been transported to Shichengzi from various locations. Winter foddering and vertical transhumance were the two critical strategies employed to manage Shichengzi’s flocks. While most sheep grazed seasonally along the altitude, a portion of the sheep population were closely managed within the fort, provided with fodder all year round. Seasonal lambing concentrated births in the spring and autumn in an effort to increase livestock survivorship. The variation in sheep isotope profiles denotes an inter-dependent system of provisioning at Shichengzi, where a stable food source could be maintained and relations between border garrisons and local communities actively manipulated. This adaptive military economy was mostly the product of the complex interplay between military demand, the inherent advantages in the indigenous economy and the constraints of the local environment.

A comparison between yaks and Qaidam cattle in in vitro rumen fermentation, methane emission, and bacterial community composition with poor quality substrate

Yaks (Bos grunniens) and Qaidam cattle (Bos taurus) graze the Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau (QTP) grassland all year, but yaks graze at altitudes higher than cattle. Yaks are raised by vertical transhumance, grazing at higher altitudes in summer and lower altitudes in winter. It is mainly in winter, when forage is of poor quality, that the two species co-graze. At this time, yaks do not receive supplements or shelter while cattle require supplements and night shelter. Previous studies reported that both energy and protein utilization were greater in yaks than cattle, and the rumen microbiota differed between the species. Based on the differences between species, we hypothesized that the rumen microbiota would enable yaks to digest a poor quality diet to a greater extent than cattle. This could explain why yaks are able to overcome the harsh winter without supplements while grazing poor quality pasture, but cattle require supplements. To test the hypothesis, fermentation parameters were studied in vitro using rumen inocula from yaks and cattle. Four isonitrogenous substrates of different energy levels (6.62, 8.02, 9.42, 10.80 MJ ME/kg) were used. The neutral and acid fiber detergent digestibilities were greater (P < 0.05) in yaks than in cattle and both increased linearly (P < 0.05) with increasing energy level. Methane production was lesser (P < 0.05) in yaks than cattle, and decreased linearly (P < 0.05) with increasing energy level. Concentrations of total volatile fatty acids (VFAs) and acetate, the ratio of acetate to propionate, and ammonia-N (except at 48 h) were greater (P < 0.05) in yaks than cattle; whereas concentrations of propionate (except at 6 h), butyrate, and iso-VFAs were lesser (P < 0.05) in yaks than cattle. In addition, total VFAs, propionate, butyrate, and ammonia-N increased linearly (P < 0.05), whereas, acetate and the ratio of acetate to propionate decreased linearly (P < 0.05) with increasing energy level. The relative abundance of Bacteroidetes was greater (P < 0.05), whereas of Firmicutes and the ratio of Firmicutes to Bacteroidetes were lesser (P < 0.01) in yaks than cattle, and Bacteroidetes decreased linearly (P < 0.001), whereas Firmicutes and the ratio of Firmicutes to Bacteroidetes increased linearly (P < 0.01) with increasing energy levels. The relative abundances of fibrolytic bacteria (e.g. Rikenellaceae_RC9_gut_group and Butyrivibrio) and of H2-incorporating bacteria (e.g. Quinella) were greater (P < 0.05), whereas, amylolytic bacteria (e.g. Selenomonas and Succiniclasticum) and of H2-producing bacteria (e.g. Lachnospiraceae_NK3A20_group and Ruminococcus) were lesser (P < 0.05) in the rumen inoculum from yaks than cattle. It was concluded that the greater relative abundance of fibrolytic and H2-incorporation bacteria and lesser H2-producing bacteria enable yaks to better digest fibers and produce less CH4 than cattle.

Reconstructed Paleodiets and Subsistence Strategies of the Central Ciscaucasian Population (1000 BC to 1000 AD), Based on Collagen Isotope Analysis of Bone Samples from the Kichmalka II Burial Ground

Settlement and economy patterns of the Iron Age and early medieval population of the Central North Caucasus evidence complex cultural processes in the region. The ecological approach including the evaluation of carbon and nitrogen isotopes in the local biota opens up new prospects in the study of environments, climate, anthropogenic effect, land use, and nutrition. We analyze the isotopic composition of collagen in 19 human and 11 animal bone samples from Kichmalka II—a cemetery successively used by the Koban people, those of the Sarmatian stage, and Alans. The isotopic composition of the Alanian sample indicates a heavy predominance of plants with the C3-type photosynthesis in the diet of humans and animals. People who lived during the Koban and Sarmatian stages consumed also C4-plants, such as common millet (Panicum miliaceum), suggesting the rise of the trophic step for carbon (Δδ13Chuman-animal). Statistically signifi cant differences in the isotopic composition of carbon were found within the Koban population, apparently evidencing two dietary models. The Δδ15Nhuman-animal values fall within the trophic step, mirroring a focus on meat and dairy products in the diet of all groups. Comparison with respective data on the Klin-Yar III cemetery revealed differences in isotopic signatures in the diet of both humans and domestic animals during the Koban period. The possible reason is climatic change in the Iron Age and the variable share of millet in the diet of the Koban people. The low proportion of δ15N (below 4 ‰) in the bone collagen of goat, sheep, and horse of the Alanian period may attest to vertical transhumance.

Transhumance in the Early Neolithic? Carbon and oxygen isotope insights into sheep husbandry at Arene Candide, Northern Italy

Vertical transhumance is historically known as an animal management practice in the Mediterranean that mitigates the risk of overgrazing and unpalatable pastures. It has long been debated whether the practice developed together with the spread of the Neolithic in Europe or if it was adopted later. This study explores the evidence for transhumant pastoralism at Arene Candide, Northern Italy during the Neolithic. We examine the carbon (δ13C) and oxygen (δ18O) isotope values of sequentially sampled sheep teeth from the Early and Middle Neolithic layers at Arene Candide. The pattern of reduced δ18O profile amplitude as well as inverse cyclical isotope variation characterised by lower δ13C during the summer season suggest that some of the sheep analysed were moved to higher altitude pasture areas during the summer months. The dating of the analysed samples suggest that small-scale transhumance occurred at Arene Candide during the Cardial phase (5400–5300 BCE). Because the sample size in this study is small, it remains difficult to project transhumant pastoralism as a widespread practice in the Mediterranean region. Further studies of this kind will provide a greater understanding of the development and use of vertical transhumance.

Investigating early husbandry strategies in the southern Caucasus: intra-tooth sequential carbon and oxygen isotope analysis of Neolithic goats, sheep, and cattle from Göytepe and Hacı Elamxanlı Tepe

The beginning of agriculture marks major changes in food acquisition technology in human history. In the southern Caucasus, agricultural villages emerged around 6000 cal. BC, 2000 to 3000 years later than in the Fertile Crescent despite their geographical closeness to each other. This study aims to provide isotopic evidence indicative of animal herding strategies in the early farming communities in the southern Caucasus. To analyze intra-individual sequential carbon and oxygen isotope variations, we used tooth enamel of five goats, four sheep, and three cattle from the Neolithic settlements, Göytepe and Hacı Elamxanlı Tepe (Azerbaijan). The analyses also included reference samples of modern domestic goat and sheep that are known to have grazed in the vicinity of the sites. As a result, the sequential carbon and oxygen isotope variations of the modern goat and sheep samples showed large amplitude and a synchronous pattern during the whole enamel maturation period. The same pattern was observed in some of the Neolithic goat and sheep samples, suggesting they may have grazed in the vicinity of the lowland site throughout the year. Other Neolithic goat and cattle samples exhibited relatively small amplitudes and inverse cyclical variation patterns. While these patterns may have been caused by multiple factors, such as drinking water and food/fodder, vertical transhumance has also been proposed for the similar isotope patterns. Despite the difficulty in specifying exact causes for the observed isotopic patterns, their diversity within/among the species implies multiple pastoral strategies that may have had adaptive advantages in new agricultural frontiers in the southern Caucasus.

Livelihood Dependence on Highland Pastoralism (Doksa) in Trans-Himalayan Region of Zanskar, Ladakh

A unique system of short-distance vertical transhumance pastoralism has evolved in the Trans-Himalayan region of Zanskar, Ladakh in response to short summer cropping season and vast alpine pasturelands. Cattle are taken to highland pastures for three-and-a-half month in summer season and kept in temporary settlements locally called as doksa. The study investigated the herding practices, migration pattern, livestock production and livelihood dependence on highland pastoralism. Purposive sampling technique was administered to withdraw the sample of 6 doksas and the data were collected from both secondary and primary sources. Results revealed that 31 herders in the 6 doksas possessed a total of 794 milk producing zhomos. The doksas produced 3 lakh litres of milk, 18000 kg of butter and the same amount of dried protein cake (chhurpey). The herders earned incomes of ₹ 122500.00 and ₹ 59375.00 by trading 300-350 kg of butter and 450-500 kg of chhurpey, respectively with employment opportunities of 3100 woman-days/year. The poor living conditions at doksa and unavailability of alternative economic opportunities for women herders has threatened its continuation for cash generation, food and livelihood security and socioeconomic development. Therefore, livelihood diversification using alternative resources is imperative to keep pace with current development and future challenges.

The effect of animal herding practices on the diversity of human stable isotope values in North Central Asia

Human isotopic values from North Central Asia vary not only chronologically, but also spatially, which likely points to the exploitation of different resources for the subsistence. We argue that observed differences in the human isotopic ratios across North Central Asia are directly related to the animal herding strategies, which in turn were influenced by the local environment and landscape features. This paper presents a collation of both new (n = 149) and previously published (n = 585) carbon and nitrogen isotopic values measured on human bone collagen dating from the Bronze Age to Medieval period Northern Central Asia. These data have allowed modeling human dietary variations in different ecotones and chronological periods of North Central Asia. Analysis of isotopic values of various domestic herbivore species demonstrated that horses, cattle, and sheep/goats in North Central Asia tend to exhibit different isotopic signatures. The strong regional variations, particularly evident in δ13C values across North Central Asia from Bronze to Middle Ages tend to reflect the scale of C4 crop consumption by humans. However, they can also be related to the differences in the exploited herding strategies, such as the focus on cattle, horses or caprines husbandry as well as vertical transhumance pastoralism.

Meat Production Performance of Karachai Ram Lambs Reared under Effects of Altitudinal Zonation in the Northern Caucasus Mountain Regions

The objective of the survey was to assess the production performance of meat and its quality in the Karachai ram lambs reared under the different management technologies and altitudinal zonation systems in the Northern Caucasus Mountain Regions. The ram lambs of group one were kept on the mountain grazing lands at the elevation of 2200 m above sea level for the whole period of the survey. The ram lambs of group two were kept in the foothills at the elevation of 540 m above sea level. The ram lambs of group three, aged 4–8 months, were managed on grasslands at the elevation of 1200 m above sea level; reaching 9 months of age, they were moved toward low-elevation pasture fields in the foothills. The ram lambs of group four before weaning at 4 months of age were kept in the foothills at the elevation of 540 m above sea level; at the age of 4–8 months, they were moved toward high-mountain grasslands at the elevation of 2200 m above sea level; reaching 9 months of age, they were moved toward pastures in the foothills. The ram lambs reared under a vertical transhumance grazing system showed the maximum preslaughter liveweight compared to that in their peers kept under management promoting year-round grazing and foothill farming, which comprised 3.1–3.8 (P > 0.95–0.99) and 1.5–2.2 (P > 0.95), respectively. The carcass weight of the specimens grown under year-round grazing management made up 18.4 kg each, which was 0.8–2.7 kg lower on average than the values for the other ram-lamb groups (P > 0.95). The slaughter yield of the ram lambs of a vertical transhumance grazing system (group four) was 2.2% higher (P > 0.95) than that in their peers grazing year-round. The greater chop weight of grade one was typical for the youngstock of a vertical transhumance grazing system, which comprised 17.3–18.3 vs. 15.3–16.0 kg in their peers of year-round grazing management and foothill farming (P > 0.95–0.99). The lamb meat produced by the youngstock of grazing management was characterized by 5–28 mg/100 g (P > 0.95–0.99) and 0.19–0.89 (P > 0.95) increases in tryptophan levels and protein-quality values, respectively.

Impact of Climate Change and Adaptation Measures on Transhumance Herding System in Gatlang, Rasuwa

Climate change impact is global and Nepal is no exception, posing vulnerability for different communities and regions. Transhumance herding is the culture and identity of indigenous settlement in Himalayan region where herders follow vertical transhumance herding as a part of subsistence mixed agriculture system for their livelihood. It differs from nomadism in terms of its periodicity, regularity, and mobility. This study confers the impacts of climate change and adaptation on transhumance herders in Gatlang of Rasuwa District. Focus Group Discussion, Key Informant Interview, and Questionnaire survey were carried out covering herder’s perception toward climatic variability, changes in the biophysical indicator, its impact and adaptation strategies. Data were analyzed using descriptive statistics, weighted mean, and Index of Usefulness of Practice for Adaptation (IUPA) tools. This study showed increase in mean average temperature (0.0202°C), increase in monsoon precipitation (2.1 mm) and decrease in winter precipitation (0.5 mm). Seasonal movement of livestock was mainly guided for adjusting temperature. The observed changes in biophysical indicator were diverse with shrinking grazing lands as most agreed statements followed by low crop productivity and faster melting of snow in rangeland. Herders perceived different adaptation strategies where reserving some grazing areas scored highest IUPA ranking followed by seasonal movement, storage of grass/hay, and so on. Though transhumance itself is one of the adaptation strategy against climate change people were not aware about changing monsoon precipitation and following same seasonal calendar as before which have affected livestock. These observations suggested that herders were unaware of the underlying cause and its impacts on the system which needed to be monitored scientifically.

Heading for the hills? A multi-isotope study of sheep management in first-millennium BC Italy

Livestock husbandry played a fundamental role in the economy of ancient Mediterranean communities. In central Italy, archaeological evidence for a significant re-organisation of animal production appears during the first millennium BC alongside the rise of urban settlements and an aristocratic class. Urban sites are interpreted as having a central role in the organisation of agricultural production, through control over their territories and the re-distribution/exchange of agricultural products. However, these hypotheses have never been bio-archaeologically demonstrated. Here, we present a detailed multi-isotope pilot study of sheep management and mobility – the first isotopic study dedicated to fauna from late prehistoric or Roman Italy – which investigates animal management and agricultural provisioning in two Etruscan sites (675–430 BC). We used ZooMS to confirm species identifications, and isotopic analyses (87Sr/86Sr, δ18O, δ13C, and δ15N) to gain insight into differences in animal management at the ancient city of Velzna (5th century BC), modern Orvieto, and the aristocratic residence of Poggio Civitate (7th century BC). Results demonstrate that Orvieto received sheep raised in at least three distinct locations, while data from Poggio Civitate were compatible with herding in a single area. These results reinforce interpretation of Orvieto as a central place that collected resources from its hinterland, while Poggio Civitate employed a more isolated production strategy. Analyses did not produce evidence for long-distance vertical transhumance at either site, with results suggesting more local variation in herding patterns, consistent with seasonal herding in the general hinterland of each location. This pilot study offers a first step towards higher-resolution understanding of animal management in the region, and demonstrates the potential of further isotopic studies to provide new insights on agricultural provisioning and territorial control in proto-historic Italy.

Steady transformation of primeval forest into subalpine pasture during the Late Neolithic to Early Bronze Age (2300−1700 BC) in the Silvretta Alps, Switzerland

The question of the origin of Alpine farming and pastoral activities associated with seasonal vertical transhumance and dairy production in the Silvretta Alps (Eastern Switzerland) has recently benefitted from renewed interest. There, pastoral practises began during the Late Neolithic (2300 BC), but alpine dairy farming was directly evidenced so far only since the Late Bronze Age/Early Iron Age (1300–500 BC). The vegetation development, timberline shifts at 2280 m a.s.l. and environmental conditions of the subalpine Urschai Valley (Canton of Grisons, Switzerland) were reconstructed for the small (8 m2) Plan da Mattun fen based on palynological and geochemical analyses for the last six millennia. The X-ray fluorescence (XRF) analyses are among the first ones performed on a European peatland in such altitudes. A high Rb/Sr ratio in the fen peat sediments revealed an increase in catchment erosion during the time when the forests of the Upper Urschai Valley were steadily diminished probably by fire and livestock impact (2300–1700 BC). These landscape openings were paralleled by increasing micro-charcoal influx values, suggesting that prehistoric people actively set fire on purpose. Simultaneously, palynological evidence for pastoralism was revealed, such as pollen from typical herbs indicating livestock trampling, and abundant spores from coprophilous fungi. Since then, vertical transhumance and pastoral activities remained responsible for the open subalpine landscape above 2000 m a.s.l., most probably also in the context of milk and dairy production since 1300 BC, which is characteristic for the European Alps until today.

Zooarchaeological evidence of functional and social differentiation in northern Italy between the Neolithic and Bronze ages

Many sites dating from the Neolithic to the Bronze Age have been investigated in northern Italy and have provided important zooarchaeological data. These sites are mostly settlements, but also places of worship and necropoli. While there are few zooarchaeological studies for the north-western part of Italy, the north-east and the Po Valley have been better investigated. Particularly important are the pile-dwellings and the Terramare sites of the Po Valley as they have a long chronological span, the animal bone assemblages are large and, therefore, highly statistically reliable, and have been excavated relatively recently. There is evidence of functional and social differentiation in the Bronze Age which coincided with the evolution of more complex societies. The most common type of functional differentiation began when human communities started to settle and is visible in the zooarchaeological record. Until the end of the Copper Age, animal bone assemblages are characterized by the presence of both domestic animals and a relatively important proportion of wild animals. In the early Bronze Age, domestic animals dominated, if not entirely, the assemblages, and a growing interest in secondary products is evident. From the Middle Bronze Age, the foundation of semi-permanent settlements multiplied in the Alpine area, in the internal areas (secondary valleys and areas far from the main watercourses) and at medium-high altitudes. This was coupled with the seasonal occupation of sites at a high altitude, used for the practice of vertical transhumance (alpine pasture). This phenomenon implies the existence of a settlement hierarchy and, therefore, of forms of social stratification within the framework of the settlement system. Unfortunately, the few zooarchaeological studies of sites located in the Emilia Apennines do not currently allow us to confirm the existence of such links between the mountain sites and those on the plain. Nevertheless, other evidence, such as the introduction of the horse, which is attested from the late Early Bronze Age onwards, can be interpreted as proof of social differentiation; the horse was, in fact, considered a status symbol of the emerging warrior elite.Very few animal burials, dated to the period studied, show the link between animal species (such as dog, cattle, deer) and cultural practices, although a number of examples of such a relationship are provided by the terramare necropoli. In conclusion, in light of current knowledge, it seems that zooarchaeology cannot confirm the existence of important forms of social stratification. This does not mean that they cannot necessarily be postulated: the complex use of territory and the evidently communal nature of funerary and cult ceremonies (which often involved animals) that characterize the Bronze Age make it difficult to exclude the existence of such stratification.

A survey of selected animal-based measures of dairy cattle welfare in the Eastern Alps: Toward context-based thresholds

In the Alps, traditional dairy farms are small-scale operations where vertical transhumance from valley indoor housing systems to highland pasture-based systems is still practiced in summer. Vertical transhumance implies a substantial change of environment, available resources, and management practices from one season to another. In such systems, animal-based welfare measures need to be monitored throughout the year to capture the variation of welfare outcomes, based on which targeted welfare management plans can be implemented. Because the Welfare Quality assessment approach has been tailored to indoor housing and intensive farming systems, the European Food Safety Authority recently developed a welfare assessment protocol for small-scale dairy cattle farms adapted after the Welfare Quality framework. The aim of this study was to assess nonbehavioral animal-based measures as defined by this protocol at different time points for transhumant systems in the Alps. In total, 18 animal-based measures were assessed before, during, and after the mountain pasture period in a sample of 67 small-scale dairy cattle farms practicing vertical transhumance in neighboring provinces of Austria, Italy, and Slovenia. Significant differences between assessments were identified for dirtiness of legs and teats, hairless patches, lesions and swellings, claw condition, ocular discharge, and diarrhea whereas BCS, lameness/severe lameness, vulvar discharge, nasal discharge, and hampered respiration were unchanged between seasons. In addition, a benchmarking exercise was carried out to identify relative boundaries (worst quartile thresholds) for each animal-based measure and to contribute to the discussion about achievable welfare outcomes for the 2 husbandry conditions that characterize a transhumant system. Worst quartile thresholds indicated a high prevalence of dirtiness (>80%) when cows were kept indoors, high prevalence of hairless patches (65%) before pasture turnout, and high prevalence of very lean cows (>13%) throughout the assessments. On the other hand, the best quartile thresholds for most clinical conditions suggested that high welfare standards (zero prevalence) are widely achievable in mountain farms practicing vertical transhumance during all assessments. The thresholds identified through benchmarking should serve as the basis for an effective context-based welfare management strategy promoting continuous welfare improvement on-farm.

Vertical transhumance of sheep and goats identified by intra-tooth sequential carbon (δ13C) and oxygen (δ18O) isotopic analyses: Evidence from Chalcolithic Köşk Höyük, central Turkey

Vertical transhumance is a crucial animal management strategy that provides livestock with fresh pasture on a seasonal basis while simultaneously expanding the scale of landscape usage by the pastoralist component of complex agro-pastoralist societies. Here, we explore the use of vertical transhumance in Anatolia during the Early and Middle Chalcolithic periods (6200–4500 cal BC), a time of socio-political transformation that presaged the rise of early state level societies in the region supported by a pronounced intensification in the exploitation of domesticated sheep and goats for their wool – a valuable commodity. We examine the carbon (δ13C) and oxygen (δ18O) composition of sequentially sampled tooth enamel from Chalcolithic sheep and goats from Köşk Höyük. The pattern of inverse cyclical isotopic variation characterized by high summer season δ18O values coincident with low δ13C values suggests livestock were moved to moist, high elevation pastures supporting 13C-depleted graze during the summer months or supplied with 13C-enriched fodder during the winter months. Inter-individual variation in absolute δ18O values and the amplitude of intra-tooth oxygen isotopic change reflects either differences in the spatial location of pastures, differences in the relative contribution of 18O enriched leaf water to caprine body water, or a combination of both. The incorporation of pasturing strategies involving vertical transhumance into livestock management systems, in conjunction with zooarchaeological evidence for increasing pastoral specialization and wool production at Köşk Höyük, suggests an intensification of smallstock production that provided important economic support for increasingly complex political landscapes.

Analysis of the Characteristics of Traditional Rural Constructions for Animal Corrals in the Adriatic-Ionian Area

The purpose of the present study is a comparative analysis of the characteristics of traditional rural constructions constituted by temporary settlements for animal corrals, employed for vertical transhumance or nomadic pastoralism, spread over the mountain regions of three different Countries of the Adriatic-Ionian area, i.e., Greece, Italy and Montenegro. The main methods applied in this research were the detection and typological survey of some examples of these rural constructions located in Southern Italy, whose typical dimensions, building material and constructive technologies were detected and analysed. Major findings of the research have been the identification of some similarities connecting architecture and building material of these constructions, which revealed common technologies applied by people from different countries that, despite different socio-economical and cultural traditions, have employed similar techniques, implementing simple but very effective constructive building principles. Main conclusions are connected to the possible restoration of these constructions that, designed over the centuries in order to fulfil their primary agricultural role, now constitute a widespread cultural heritage with a significant architectural value, influencing the agricultural environment and the visual perception of its landscape that, within the current re-discover of the agricultural heritage, may play a central role, even though new activities related to rural tourism.

La arqueología neolítica en el Abrigo de Penedo dos Mouros (Gouveia, Portugal): la evidencia de prácticas de trashumancia primitiva en la Sierra de la Estrella

Located in the foothills of the north-western sector of the Estrela Mountain (Beira Alta province in central-north Portugal), Penedo dos Mouros Rock-shelter revealed a succession of three distinct archaeological horizons datable to the evolved Early Neolithic and initial Middle Neolithic, thus partially coinciding with the onset of the regional Megalithism. The find of a few caprine remains at least one possible sheep, among a large spectrum of species –swine, rabbit, hare, Iberian lynx and toad–, makes this site the oldest in the region to provide direct evidence for herding practices. Small-sized pots, expedient use of local lithic raw materials together with curated use of exogenous flint, and low density of artefacts indicate a strategy of residential mobility in line with similar evidence observed elsewhere in Beira Alta. Given previous claims of Neolithic vertical transhumance between montane plateaux –in the summer– and lowland plains –in the winter–, this hypothesis is here discussed –and refuted– based on spatial analysis of Neolithic sites, economic characterization of the period and local orographic and bioclimatic constraints.

Cortisol and DHEA concentrations in the hair of dairy cows managed indoor or on pasture

This study was conducted in order to assess the changes of cortisol and dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA) concentrations in hair of Italian Simmental dairy cows managed indoor in tie-stall barns or grazing on high mountain pasture. In experiment I, animals were kept in tie-stalls throughout the year (n = 27). In experiment II, animals remained on mountain pastures during summer (from 20th June to 20th September) and then kept indoors in tie-stalls for the rest of the year (n = 18). At the end of July, following vertical transhumance, dairy cows were moved to a pasture located at a higher altitude. In the two studies, hair samples, obtained using clippers from the animal's forehead, were collected on the 20th June (P1), 20th July (P2), 20th August (P3), 20th September (P4) and 20th October (P5) and analysed for cortisol and DHEA. In experiment I, DHEA concentration was unaffected by sampling time (P > 0.05), whereas, cortisol/DHEA ratio was similar between P1 and P2 (P > 0.05) and then increased during the experimental period reaching the highest value at P5 (P < 0.05). In experiment II, dairy cows had higher concentration of DHEA during grazing compared to cows kept indoors (P < 0.05), conversely cortisol/DHEA ratio decreased from P1 to P2 (P < 0.05), remained constant from P2 to P3 (P > 0.05) and then increased from P3 to P4 (P < 0.05), the highest value was recorded at P5. In conclusion, cortisol and DHEA concentrations and their ratio measured in the hair of dairy cows can be useful to evaluate the allostatic load in animals managed indoor in tie-stall barn or grazing on mountain pasture.

Alpine cattle management during the Bronze Age at Ramosch-Mottata, Switzerland

Based on a series of new radiocarbon dates we examine the vertical mobility of cattle in the Alps by means of strontium isotope analysis on samples from the prehistoric settlement of Ramosch-Mottata (Canton of Grisons, Switzerland). By identifying variations in the strontium isotope ratios of high-crowned cattle molars, we investigate the seasonal use of alpine pastures (vertical transhumance) and changes in cattle husbandry practices between the early and later stages of the site's occupation. Combined with the evidence of multiple high-altitude sites, indications of dairying and ethno-archeological observations, we see an economic shift and a reorganization of domestic animal exploitation from the early to the late Bronze/early Iron Age in the Alps.