Vertical Hydroponic Research Articles

IoT-Based Smart Vertical Hydroponic System for Chili Plant

Agriculture serves as the primary source of food for the global population, playing a critical role in meeting the nutritional needs of people worldwide. With the projected population reaching 9.7 billion by 2050, ensuring an adequate and sustainable food supply becomes increasingly challenging. Hydroponics, a technique that cultivates plants without soil by delivering mineral nutrients through water, offers a potential solution. Hydroponics requires only 10% of the space and 90% less water compared to conventional farming, enabling year-round production of nearly organic food. Vertical hydroponic systems, which arrange plants in stacked or suspended layers, optimize the use of vertical space and are particularly suitable for indoor and urban agriculture where land is limited. However, these systems require regular maintenance and monitoring, including managing nutrient solution balance, pH levels, water quality, and lighting conditions. This complexity can pose challenges for growers lacking time, resources, or technical expertise. To address these issues and ensure sustainability, an automated monitoring method is proposed for vertical hydroponic farming. This project aims to develop a system that automates the checking and maintenance of nutrient levels in the vertical farming process, monitoring factors such as Electrical Conductivity (EC), pH, liquid level, and water temperature. The integration of automation technologies in vertical hydroponics enhances precision, efficiency, and productivity by reducing labour requirements, optimizing resource utilization, and granting growers greater control over the growing environment. These advancements result in healthier plants, higher yields, and more sustainable agricultural practices.

Sustaining Natural Dye Plants with Post-Consumer Textile Waste

Aligned with the circular economy framework, this study aims to address pertinent research gaps regarding material and chemical properties of clothing and suitability for closed-loop applications. Primary research questions include: (1) what are the material and chemical properties of post-consumer textile waste from a sustainable fashion take-back program; (2) which natural post-consumer textile waste is most suitable to support the growth of natural dye plants in a hydroponics system; and (3) can the use of post-consumer textile waste in a hydroponics system be scaled to support a circular fashion supply chain? This study focuses on wool, cotton, linen, silk, rayon, and Tencel® lyocell as substrates to nurture the growth of purple basil, a natural dye plant. Vertical hydroponics is a farming method that uses nutrient water to grow plants in place of soil throughout the year. The system can be indoors, making resourceful use of limited space available and the water is recirculated. Standard hydroponic substrates, like peat moss and rockwool, have good porosity for oxygen transport and suitable moisture holding capacity for nutrient delivery. In this study, we compared the performance of the standard hydroponic substrates with various textiles. The impact on water quality, color release, moisture wicking, stability against degradation, and survival rate of the plants was used to evaluate suitability in the application. Wool, silk, and Tencel lyocell demonstrated good durability in the hydroponic system, like peat moss and rockwool, during the first growth cycle. During the second growth cycle, protein fibers—wool and silk—supported plant survival at a greater capacity than Tencel lyocell. Future research can confirm that wool and silk can support the growth of natural dye plants with a larger sample size. This research aligns with several circular economy objectives and provides a model for future research to support circular fashion supply chains.

Beneficial bacterial endophytes promote spinach plant growth under indoor vertical hydroponics

Beneficial bacterial endophytes promote spinach plant growth under indoor vertical hydroponics

Effect of Different Electrical Conductances and Vertical Hydroponics Systems on Yield and Yield Attributing Traits of Strawberry (Fragaria x ananassa Duch.) cv. Winter Dawn

The experiment entitled “Effect of Different Electrical Conductances and Vertical Hydroponics Systems on Yield and Yield Attributing Traits of Strawberry (Fragaria x ananassa Duch.) cv. Winter Dawn’’ was carried under a Naturally Ventilated Polyhouse in the Experimental Farm, Department of Horticulture, Assam Agriculture University, Jorhat, Assam during the year 2019-21. The experiment was laid out in a factorial completely randomized block design with three types of vertical hydroponics systems viz., T1 , T2 , and T3 , and two EC levels viz., L1 (1.8 dSm-1) and L2 (2.5 dSm-1) and six replications. Among the three vertical hydroponics systems T1 and L1 were found to be the best for yield and yield contributing characteristics. The significant effect of vertical hydroponics system T1 and L1 was observed in NAR (1.35mg cm-2 day-1) and (1.34 mg cm-2 day-1), yield (357.88 g./plant) and (316.91g./plant), fruit weight (25.61g) and (24.03g), number of fruits per plant (13.92) and (12.97), Number of fruits per system (295.00) and (247.08), weight of fruit per system (5.84 kg) and (5.84 kg), fruit length (6.96cm) and (5.88cm), fruit girth (10.35cm) and (9.89cm) and Fruit volume (10.56 cc) and (9.74 cc) was found highest in T1 , L1 and T1 xL1 . Among the two EC and three vertical hydroponic systems, significant differences in growth parameters were observed primarily due to differences in Net Assimilation Rate (NAR) availability. A higher NAR availability led to a higher rate of photosynthesis, better quality of the fruits of the plants in the T1 . Therefore, some modifications such as A-shape or V-shape designs are suggested in the vertical hydroponics system to improve NAR availability in the column type and Shelf-type. Among both E.C levels, the effect of EC 1.8 was found to be the best for yield contributing characters of strawberries.

Biotechnology Engineering Vertical Hydroponic Farming in PjBL-STEM Learning Jigsaw Strategy to Improve Creative Thinking Skills and Creativity of Grade 10 Students

This study tested the effectiveness of PjBL-STEM learning model jigsaw strategy on creative thinking skills and creativity of grade X students on biotechnology vertical hydroponic farming material. The research method used was quasi-experimental design with pretest-posttest control group design, which was conducted in Class X SMAN 1 Ciracap in Sukabumi Regency as many as 60 students consisting of 30 experimental class students and 30 control class students. Data collection was conducted using initial and final tests for creative thinking skills and observation sheets for student creativity and student response questionnaires to the PjBL-STEM Jigsaw strategy model. Quantitative data from the study were analyzed using SPSS-25 and qualitative data were processed using descriptive analysis. The experimental class received PjBL-STEM learning treatment with jigsaw strategy, while the control class used PjBL. For the first time learning model applied in class X, PjBL-STEM jigsaw strategy is effective in improving students' creative thinking skills and creativity. The prominent creative thinking skills are shown in the fluency and originality indicators. Based on the observation, the implementation of the PjBL-STEM model of jigsaw strategy directs students to the steps of inquiry, engineering design, production process, and communication much better than PjBL.

Nutrient Management for Growth, Yield and Quality of Strawberry (Fragariax ananassa) in Vertical Hydroponics System

The present investigation was carried out to find out nutrient management for growth, yield attributes, yield and quality attributes of strawberry (Fragaria ananassa) under vertical hydroponics tower system in Prayagraj. The experiment was conducted in a Complete Randomized Design (CRD) with nine treatments and three replications during November-March (2022-23) at Experimental Farm of Department of Horticulture, Naini Agricultural Institute, Sam Higginbottom University of Agriculture, Technology and Sciences, Prayagraj, Uttar Pradesh, India. The data were recorded from four randomly selected plants from each replication of the treatments for 14 characters. The 9 treatments comprising of different doses in combination of macro nutrients N:P:K , micro nutrients Zn: B: Fe and organic fertilizer sea weed extract were given in three different stages of the crop i.e., seedling stage, vegetative growth stage and reproductive stage . Naphthalene Acetic Acid (NAA) as plant growth regulator (PGR) was applied in reproductive stage of the crop at the time of flowering for better fruit set. Aqueous solution of nutrients applied at seedling stage followed by vegetative growth stage and reproductive stage , treatment T7 comprising of N- 7.5, 8.5 and 9.5 g/10 litres of water at all three stages, respectively, P- 4.0, 5.0 and 6.0 g/10 litres of water at all three stages, respectively, K- 2.5, 3.5 and 4.5 g/10 litres of water, at all three stages, respectively, Zn- 0.25,0.35 and 0.45g/10 l of water at all three stages, respectively , B – 0.35, 0.45 and 0.55g/10 litres of water at all three stages, respectively, Fe- 0.65,0.75 and 0.85 mg/10 litres of water at all three stages, respectively and organic fertilizer (see weed extract) @ 8 and 10 ml/ 10 litres of water at seedling and vegetative stages and NAA @ 300 ppm was applied at reproductive stage for fruit settings was the best and recorded maximum plant height (18.42cm),plant spread area (18.58cm2), number of leaves per plant (8.21), root length (16.03cm), leaf area (47.75cm2), number of flowers per plant (14.47), number of fruits per plant (14), yield per treatment (1.451kg) with B: C ratio (1:2.72) and quality of the strawberry as TSS (9.330brix), titratable acidity (1.33%) and ascorbic acid (60.45 mg/100g) followed by T6 and T5.

Effect of Different Concentrations of Liquid N, P& K on Growth, Yield and Quality of Cucumber (Cucumis sativus L.) in Vertical Hydroponics under Shade Net

The experiment was carried out to find out the effect of different concentrations of liquid NPK on growth, yield and quality of cucumber (Cucumis sativus L.). The variety was “Ankita”, which is F1 hybrid. The experiment was carried out during September, 2021 to December, 2021 in Shade net, Research Field, Department of Horticulture, SHUATS, Prayagraj. The experiment was conducted in Randomized Block Design (RBD), with eight treatments T1(16.25ml NPK & micronutrients/Pl in total), T2(18.75ml NPK & micronutrients/Pl in total), T3(21.25ml NPK & micronutrients/Pl in total) T4(23.75ml NPK & micronutrients/Pl in total) T5(26.25ml NPK & micronutrients/Pl in total) T6(28.75ml NPK & micronutrients/Pl in total) T7(31.25ml NPK & micronutrients/Pl in total) with a control (T0), replicated thrice in vertical hydroponics system. The NPK level increased by 5ml on every 15 days interval. The best result was shown by the treatment T5(26.25ml NPK & micronutrients/Pl in total). The first fruit setting, picking, vine length, number of leaves, growth of plant, chlorophyll content all parameter were superior in T5. The plants in control did not show any significant improvement as there were no nutrients given to them. The systems ran four hours daily during their vegetative growth and the timing was increased to six hours during their reproductive phase of development. Fruit formation occurs in almost all plants in each and every treatment except control there was no fruit formation.

Financial Viability of Business Models For Engineered Vertical Hydroponics Systems For Sustainable Onion Production in The Philippines

This study aimed to explore the financial, socio-economic, and environmental benefits of sustainable onion production using vertical farming and hydroponic systems, and to identify key factors affecting the viability of these business models. Data were collected through a survey of onion farmers and producers in the Philippines, and analyzed using descriptive and inferential statistics. Results showed that sustainable onion production using vertical farming and hydroponic systems has the potential to generate higher income for farmers, increase employment opportunities, improve food security, enhance market competitiveness, and promote environmental sustainability. Key financial factors affecting viability included production costs, market prices, yield, labor costs, energy costs, capital costs, financing costs, taxes and regulatory costs, and maintenance and repair costs. Recommendations for optimizing financial viability include reducing production costs, diversifying income streams, and improving market competitiveness. Overall, this study suggests that sustainable onion production using vertical farming and hydroponic systems is a viable and promising approach to achieving socio-economic and environmental sustainability in the agricultural sector.

Effects of Vermicompost and Beneficial Microbes on Biomass and Nutrient Density in Purple Lady Bok Choy (Brassica rapa var. chinensis) in A Vertical Hydroponic Grow Tower System

Indoor food production in vertical hydroponic systems can be done year-round in any climate, has less negative environmental impacts compared to industrial agriculture and is a way of increasing the nutritional value of crops. Indoor hydroponic systems make it easy to control the precision of additives and amendments, such as fertilizers and vermicompost tea, to nutrient solution reservoirs. Vermicompost tea is known to contain beneficial microorganisms and can help increase the biomass, nutrient density, and overall health of the plants. Microorganisms and plants have co-evolved and is an essential relationship that deserves recognition and further research. The goal of the research presented in this paper was to better understand if vermicompost tea and its associated microorganisms, such as bacteria, fungi, nematodes, and protozoa, would increase biomass and nutrient density of Purple Lady Bok Choy (Brassica rapa var. chinensis) in vertical hydroponic systems. Statistical analyses were performed to compare the biomass and macro- and micronutrients of three different treatments to one another and a control. There was a significant difference between the mean leaf and root biomass among varying concentrations of vermicompost tea solutions and added inorganic hydroponic fertilizer. The nutrient density for both macro- and micronutrients also differed significantly due to different concentrations of vermicompost tea, suggesting that beneficial microbes may help plants uptake and absorb nutrients in a more efficient manner depending on the concentration of vermicompost tea and hydroponic fertilizer.

A Study of Microfiber Phytoremediation in Vertical Hydroponics

Microfibers (MFs) are one of the most prevalent microplastic (MP) sub-groups found in the aquatic environment released from many sources, including household laundry. MPs pose risks to the growth rate of terrestrial/aquatic biota and through biomagnification. Although MFs can be ingested by humans, their toxic effects and potential impact on public health are not yet clearly understood. Moreover, the removal of MPs, including MFs, during wastewater treatment is a challenge, since treatment plants are not designed to collect them. Therefore, this work aims to study the potential of the in situ phytoremediation of microfibers from a domestic washing machine effluent by growing barley in a vertical hydroponic system. The temporal variation in barley growth, water quality parameters, length distribution of MFs, and their removal were evaluated over 4 weeks. We investigated the MFs’ interaction with two systems: without barley (System NP) (used as a control) and with barley (System P). The results show the barley growth is negatively affected at the end of 4 weeks, mainly by the accumulation of phosphate and the presence of fungi. However, the level of dissolved oxygen in System P is satisfactory and the presence of MFs decreases considerably (mainly for MFs > 600 µm) from different interactions with the barley roots. These interactions were corroborated by microscopy images. The total removal of MFs through the hydroponic system was 52% in week 2, decreasing to 42%. This is the first time that the removal of MFs has been evaluated using vertical hydroponics, which demonstrates that this phytoremediation system can be used at the household level. It also shows that vertical hydroponics, as an experimental methodology, for the analyses of MFs’ impacts on plant health has merit. It is expected that this study will contribute to new investigations of MF removal by green technologies.

TECHNOLOGICAL METHODS FOR CORIANDER CULTIVATION ON VERTICAL RACKS

The research is aimed at specifying the possibility of cultivation and gain of marketable coriander products with minimum energy consumption in photoculture conditions. Growth of vegetative part, root system, the quality and photosynthetic activity of coriander (Coriandrum sativum L.) were evaluated with application of LED lighting in different spectral ratios. Coriander varieties were grown hydroponically on vertical racks using flooding technology. Illumination lamps based on blue, green and red LEDs were used as lighting, with a total PAR intensity of 150 mmol/m²s. Far red 6-12% was added to the main spectrum of illumination. The results showed that application of LED light (mainly red and green, and to a lesser extent blue light) significantly influenced a wide range of parameters of plant growth and development, including photosynthetic activity of pigments, the biomass of shoots and roots. The photosynthetic ability of the leaves was significantly higher under the radiation in the second variant with the addition of far red spectrum of 6% compared to other illumination variants. The root system parameters in different variants of the experiment differed slightly. The most appropriate ratio of LED emission spectra are B(23) :G(53):R(74) mmol/m²s with a far red spectrum share of 12% (option 1) for 'Santo' variety and B(21):G(59) :R(70) mmol/m²s with 6% far red (option 2) for 'Caribe' variety. The conditions of light culture ensure formation of economically useful biomass of coriander plants in a short period of 22-25 days, on average, in the amount of 1.81 kg/m². Studies showed that in case of growing coriander varieties on vertical hydroponics racks, it is possible to obtain high-quality green marketable products in the early stages at threshold values of photosynthetic irradiance.

The Agro-Economic Feasibility of Growing the Medicinal Plant Euphorbia peplus in a Modified Vertical Hydroponic Shipping Container

Vertical farming is considered as a potential solution to increase yield while decreasing resource use and pesticide impacts compared to conventional agriculture. However, the profitability of cultivating ordinary leafy green crops with low market prices in vertical farming is debated. We studied the agronomic feasibility and viability of growing a medicinal plant—Euphorbia peplus—for its ingenol-mebutate content in a modified shipping container farm as an alternative crop cultivation system. The impacts of three hydroponic substrates, three light intensities, three plant localizations and two surface areas on E. peplus yield and cost were tested in several scenarios. The optimization of biomass yield and area surface decreased the cultivation cost, with fresh crop cost per kg ranging from €185 to €59. Three ingenol-mebutate extraction methods were tested. The best extraction yields and cheapest method can both be attributed to ethyl acetate at 120 °C, with a yield of 43.8 mg/kg at a cost of €38 per mg. Modeling of the profitability of a pharmaceutical gel based on ingenol-mebutate showed that economic feasibility was difficult to reach, but some factors could rapidly increase the profitability of this production.

Agrotechnological peculiarities of crop combination in Beta vulgaris subsp. vulgaris cultivation in vertical hydroponics

The dispensing of vertical cultivation technology in greenhouses in Russia has been held back due to deficiency of a specific assortment of vegetable plants. The studies with the possible species of cultivated crops for vertical hydroponics were carried out in Omsk State Agrarian University. The growth of Beta vulgaris subsp. vulgaris is attractive for getting “baby green”. The study of the technological peculiarities of Beta vulgaris production and the compilation of a scientifically grounded crop rotation in a container-type greenhouse with vertical cultivation of crops is the goal of research work. For growing green crops in vertical container-type greenhouses, including Beta vulgaris cutting, the sowing of seeds can be in the seedling department, bypassing the germination chamber. Beta vulgaris seedling period is 7 days, then within 3–4 months the “Baby greens” leafs are cut, the required parameters are reached by the plants in three weeks, namely leaves are cut about 4–6 times from each container, after that a turnover is performed. The proposed rational system of using the area promote increasing the amount of cut green from 0.25 to 2.0–2.86 kg from the production section. Agrotechnological measures for the use of crop rotation in the cultivation of Beta vulgaris in vertical hydroponics allow starting an autonomous mobile complex with maximum efficiency.

Preharvest Methyl Jasmonate Treatment Increased the Antioxidant Activity and Glucosinolate Contents of Hydroponically Grown Pak Choi.

Vertical hydroponics farming has emerged as an alternative solution to feed the continuously growing world population. Additionally, recent studies reported that the exogenous treatments of jasmonic acid influence the phytochemical composition of Brassicaceae. We conducted this study to determine the effect of preharvest methyl jasmonate (MeJA) treatment on the phytochemical composition and antioxidant activities of soil- and hydroponically grown pak choi. An aqueous solution of 0.5-mM MeJA was sprayed to saturation on the aerial plant part three days before harvest. The harvested pak choi was freeze-dried and then powdered to measure the antioxidant activity and the contents of chlorophylls (Chls), total phenolics and flavonoids, and glucosinolates (GSLs). The overall results revealed that pak choi grown in vertical hydroponics had higher total Chls and total phenolics than those grown in soil in the greenhouse, regardless of MeJA treatment. Nevertheless, the GSLs content and total flavonoids increased significantly due to MeJA treatment in both growing systems, and the highest values were recorded in hydroponically grown MeJA-treated pak choi. Similarly, the 2, 2-di-phenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) radical scavenging capacity, Trolox-equivalent antioxidant capacity (ABTS), oxygen radical absorbance capacity (ORAC), and ferric-reducing antioxidant power (FRAP) were highest in hydroponically grown MeJA-treated pak choi. Taken together, the preharvest foliar treatment of MeJA can be used to improve the phytochemical composition of pak choi grown in both growing systems. Interestingly, the results strongly support the use of MeJA treatment in the vertical hydroponics growing system compared to the conventional growing system in the soil. This indicates that supplementing the vertical hydroponic growing system with preharvest MeJA treatment could be the best option to improve both the yield per square meter and the quality of pak choi. Besides, MeJA-treated pak choi could be used as a value-added horticultural commodity, as its antioxidant activity increased after treatment. Moreover, after further studies, MeJA could also be applied to other Brassica vegetables to improve their GSL contents and antioxidant properties.

Design, Construction and Testing of IoT Based Automated Indoor Vertical Hydroponics Farming Test-Bed in Qatar.

Growing plants in the gulf region can be challenging as it is mostly desert, and the climate is dry. A few species of plants have the capability to grow in such a climate. However, those plants are not suitable as a food source. The aim of this work is to design and construct an indoor automatic vertical hydroponic system that does not depend on the outside climate. The designed system is capable to grow common type of crops that can be used as a food source inside homes without the need of large space. The design of the system was made after studying different types of vertical hydroponic systems in terms of price, power consumption and suitability to be built as an indoor automated system. A microcontroller was working as a brain of the system, which communicates with different types of sensors to control all the system parameters and to minimize the human intervention. An open internet of things (IoT) platform was used to store and display the system parameters and graphical interface for remote access. The designed system is capable of maintaining healthy growing parameters for the plants with minimal input from the user. The functionality of the overall system was confirmed by evaluating the response from individual system components and monitoring them in the IoT platform. The system was consuming 120.59 and 230.59 kWh respectively without and with air conditioning control during peak summer, which is equivalent to the system running cost of 13.26 and 25.36 Qatari Riyal (QAR) respectively. This system was circulating around 104 k gallons of nutrient solution monthly however, only 8–10 L water was consumed by the system. This system offers real-time notifications to alert the hydroponic system user when the conditions are not favorable. So, the user can monitor several parameters without using laboratory instruments, which will allow to control the entire system remotely. Moreover, the system also provides a wide range of information, which could be essential for plant researchers and provides a greater understanding of how the key parameters of hydroponic system correlate with plant growth. The proposed platform can be used both for quantitatively optimizing the setup of the indoor farming and for automating some of the most labor-intensive maintenance activities. Moreover, such a monitoring system can also potentially be used for high-level decision making, once enough data will be collected. This work presents significant opportunities for the people who live in the gulf region to produce food as per their requirements.

Exploring the Environmental Performance of Urban Symbiosis for Vertical Hydroponic Farming

Vertical farming has emerged in urban areas as an approach to provide more resilient food production. However, a substantial share of the material requirements come from outside their urban environments. With urban environments producing a large share of residual and waste streams, extensive potential exists to employ these material and energy streams as inputs in urban farming systems to promote more circular economy approaches. The aim of this article is to assess the environmental performance of employing residual material flows for vertical hydroponic farming in urban environments in order to support more circular, resilient, and sustainable urban food supply. Life cycle assessment (LCA) is used to assess replacing conventional growing media and fertilizers with urban residual streams. Paper, compost, and brewers’ spent grains were assessed for replacements to conventional gardening soil employed in the studied system. Biogas digestate was also assessed as a replacement for conventional fertilizers used in the recirculating water bath. The results suggest that large environmental performance benefits are illustrated when conventional growing media is replaced. Although not as significant, employing fertilizers from residual urban streams also leads to large potential benefits, suggesting the two residual streams have the potential for more circular hydroponic systems.

Vertical Hydroponic Farming with Technology

The rising world population is posing threats to global food security. The problem is more serious in urban areas where there is scarcity of farming land and water. Further, global warming is making it more and more difficult to plant crops in an uncontrolled environment. In traditional soil based farming method, farmers require good quality of soil with natural minerals. Soil based farming consumes more resources such as water, fertilizers and space. It also requires higher working cost for tilling and removal of weeds.
 Hydroponic farming is a soilless urban market gardening technique that aims at providing fresh farm products, at low costs mainly in urban areas. It has the potential of alleviating food security challenges. However, this practice requires constant monitoring of the farm environment.
 Falling prices of advanced microcontroller boards and sensors is making it possible to control and monitor a farm without or with less human intervention.
 And wireless sensing makes this even more convenient and less messier.

Environmental Assessment of an Urban Vertical Hydroponic Farming System in Sweden

With an expanding population and changing dynamics in global food markets, it is important to find solutions for more resilient food production methods closer to urban environments. Recently, vertical farming systems have emerged as a potential solution for urban farming. However, although there is an increasing body of literature reviewing the potential of urban and vertical farming systems, only a limited number of studies have reviewed the sustainability of these systems. The aim of this article was to understand the environmental impacts of vertical hydroponic farming in urban environments applied to a case study vertical hydroponic farm in Stockholm, Sweden. This was carried out by evaluating environmental performance using a life cycle perspective to assess the environmental impacts and comparing to potential scenarios for improvement options. The results suggest that important aspects for the vertical hydroponic system include the growing medium, pots, electricity demand, the transportation of raw materials and product deliveries. By replacing plastic pots with paper pots, large reductions in GHG emissions, acidification impacts, and abiotic resource depletion are possible. Replacing conventional gardening soil as the growing medium with coir also leads to large environmental impact reductions. However, in order to further reduce the impacts from the system, more resource-efficient steps will be needed to improve impacts from electricity demand, and there is potential to develop more symbiotic exchanges to employ urban wastes and by-products.

Zeolite Ion Exchange to Facilitate Anaerobic Membrane Bioreactor Wastewater Nitrogen Recovery and Reuse for Lettuce Fertigation in Vertical Hydroponic Systems

Abstract Ammonia-nitrogen recovered from synthetic anaerobic membrane bioreactor (AnMBR) permeate facilitated by natural zeolite (clinoptilolite) ion exchange was released during regeneration with ...