Vertical-cavity Surface-emitting Laser Structure Research Articles

Modeling full PCSELs and VCSELs using modified rigorous coupled-wave analysis

An integrated rigorous coupled-wave analysis (RCWA) algorithm is presented in this paper, which can simulate full vertical-cavity surface-emitting laser (VCSEL) and photonic crystal surface-emitting laser (PCSEL) structures. A classic RCWA can only analyze a structure when the light source is incident from the top, bottom, or both sides of the device. However, for VCSEL applications, the light source is generated in the middle and propagates in both directions. A bidirectional scattering matrix method and doubling algorithm are implemented in RCWA. The resonant wavelength and Q factor of a VCSEL can then be found in the output spectrum. The accuracy and execution speed are compared with those of the Lumerical finite-difference time-domain (FDTD) method for several VCSEL and PCSEL designs. The results show that the maximum discrepancy between RCWA and FDTD is less than 3 nm, and the difference in the far-field divergence angle is less than 0.5°. The speed of RCWA also outperforms FDTD simulation significantly.

Stably polarized 795 nm vertical-cavity surface-emitting lasers with anti-phase SiNx surface gratings

795 nm vertical-cavity surface-emitting lasers (VCSELs) with dielectric surface gratings to control the output polarization are designed and fabricated. The calculated results demonstrate that a well-designed SiNx surface grating positioned on the surface of an anti-phase VCSEL structure enhances the reflectivity difference between the two polarization modes compared to a conventional GaAs surface grating, consequently resulting in a larger gain anisotropy in VCSELs and a high orthogonal polarization suppression ratio (OPSR). Characterization shows that a peak-to-peak OPSR of 30.3 dB is achieved at 85°C for 795 nm VCSELs with a SiNx surface grating of 5 µm in diameter and an oxide aperture of ∼4µm, demonstrating the effectiveness of the SiNx surface grating in polarization control for 795 nm VCSELs.

Artifact-free secondary ion mass spectrometry profiling of a full vertical cavity surface emitting laser structure

The optimization of the structure of vertical-cavity surface-emitting lasers (VCSELs) is required to produce more efficient devices. The secondary ion mass spectrometry (SIMS) technique can provide information about the structure and the distribution of dopants and contaminants. However, VCSELs are relatively thick, contain hundreds of layers with varying compositions, and consist of very thin layers. Classical SIMS is prone to artifacts which decreases the quality of the results. In this work, modifications of the SIMS measurement procedures are presented: high incident angle bombardment reduces the mixing effect; optimization of the extraction parameters increases the signal-to-noise ratio from 2.1 to 24.3 dB; Ion polishing and beam service preserves the quality of the measurement. Due to impact energy modulations quantum wells and barriers are registered as box-shaped features. The raw data is free of artifacts and reflects the realistic distribution of elements. Such accuracy may prove invaluable for further optimization of VCSELs.

Controlled Cavity Length and Wide-Spectrum Lasing in FAMACsPb(BrI)3 Ternary Perovskite Vertical-Cavity Surface-Emitting Lasers with an All-Dielectric Dielectric Bragg Reflector

In this study, we utilized a dielectric Bragg reflector (DBR) as a mirror and positioned a wide-spectrum FAMACsPb(BrI)3 halide perovskite film between two DBRs to construct a vertical-cavity surface-emitting laser (VCSEL) structure. The top and bottom DBRs were connected using optical adhesive, allowing us to control the cavity length by applying external force. Through this approach, we achieved operation at the desired wavelength. Due to the exceptional optical gain provided by FAMACsPb(BrI)3, we successfully observed multimode and lasing phenomena at room temperature under continuous-wave (CW) laser excitation. The outcomes of this study provide valuable insights for the application of novel VCSEL structures and highlight the potential of using FAMACsPb(BrI)3 halide perovskites in optical gain. This work holds significant implications for the fields of optical communication and laser technology.

Current spreading structure of GaN-based vertical-cavity surface-emitting lasers.

Indium tin oxide (ITO) is often used as a current spreading layer in the GaN-based vertical-cavity surface-emitting lasers (VCSELs). However, the absorption coefficient of ITO is significant, which reduces the laser output power, raises the threshold, and makes VCSELs hardly lase in the ultraviolet range. To find a transparent conductive structure that can replace ITO, we propose a periodic p-AlGaN/u-GaN/p-GaN structure. In the simulation of light-emitting diodes, the optimized parameter is obtained with multi-period 10 nm p-Al0.1Ga0.9N/2 nm u-GaN/8 nm p-GaN combined with n-GaN/n-Al0.2Ga0.8N in the n region. Applying the structure to 435 nm VCSELs and comparing it to a common VCSEL with the ITO current spreading layer, it can be found that the new structure reduces the threshold from 9.17 to 3.06 kA/cm2. The laser power increases from 1.33 to 15.4 mW. The optimized structure has a high laser power and a lower threshold, which can be used in future investigations.

In situ cavity length control of GaN-based vertical-cavity surface-emitting lasers with in situ reflectivity spectra measurements

We developed an in situ cavity length control of GaN-based vertical-cavity surface-emitting lasers (VCSELs) with an in situ reflectivity spectra measurement. Firstly, a temperature dependence of a center wavelength of a 40-pair AlInN/GaN DBR was investigated, resulting in a 23 nm redshift from RT to GaN growth temperature of 1100 °C. Secondly, a periodic oscillation of a reflectivity intensity during the GaN cavity growth on the DBR was clearly observed, providing precise cavity length information. Thirdly, based on both the results, we performed the in situ GaN cavity length control, showing an accuracy within a 0.5% error. We finally demonstrated the in situ cavity length control of an actual GaN-based VCSEL structure containing n-layers, a GaInN active region, and p-layers by selecting different resonance wavelengths along with the corresponding growth temperatures for the layers.

High‐Performance Thin‐Film VCSELs Integrated with a Copper‐Plated Heatsink

AbstractHigh‐performance continuous‐wave (CW) vertical‐cavity surface‐emitting lasers (VCSELs) rely on efficient thermal management for which top‐emitting 930 nm thin‐film VCSELs are integrated with a copper‐plated heatsink by using a double‐transfer technique, exhibiting the low‐power consumption, high‐power, and temperature‐stable VCSEL operation. In this study, the top‐emitting 930 nm thin‐film VCSEL structures, including the highly n‐doped GaAs ohmic and lattice‐matched InGaP etch‐stop layers, are epitaxially grown via a low‐pressure metalorganic chemical vapor deposition (LP‐MOCVD) system. The electrical and optical properties of the substrate‐removal thin‐film VCSELs are investigated under CW operation, compared to those of the bulk‐type VCSELs onto the n‐GaAs substrates. The differential series resistance (85.92 Ω) of the thin‐film VCSEL is 9.16% lower than 94.59 Ω of the bulk‐type VCSEL onto the n‐GaAs substrates. The thermal resistance (607 K W−1) of the thin‐film VCSEL is 46.33% lower than 1131 K W−1 of the bulk‐type VCSEL, by which the maximum peak power (11.70 mW) of the thin‐film VCSEL at 24 mA is 12.07% higher than 10.44 mW of the bulk‐type VCSEL at 22.40 mA under room temperature (25 °C).

Spectrally-shaped illumination for improved optical inspection of lateral III-V-semiconductor oxidation.

We report an hyperspectral imaging microscopy system based on a spectrally-shaped illumination and its use to offer an enhanced in-situ inspection of a technological process that is critical in Vertical-Cavity Surface-Emitting Laser (VCSEL) manufacturing, the lateral III-V-semiconductor oxidation (AlOx). The implemented illumination source exploits a digital micromirror device (DMD) to arbitrarily tailor its emission spectrum. When combined to an imager, this source is shown to provide an additional ability to detect minute surface reflectance contrasts on any VCSEL or AlOx-based photonic structure and, in turn, to offer improved in-situ inspection of the oxide aperture shapes and dimensions down to the best-achievable optical resolution. The demonstrated technique is very versatile and could be readily extended to the real-time monitoring of oxidation or other semiconductor technological processes as soon as they rely on a real-time yet accurate measurement of spatio-spectral (reflectance) maps.

Gain measurements on VCSEL material using segmented contact technique

We report direct measurements of the optical gain on vertical-cavity surface-emitting laser (VCSEL) material using a stripe-length method featuring segmented contacts. We utilise the similarity of the in-plane transverse electric (TE) polarised matrix element and that of the VCSEL lasing mode and a simple method to reduce round trip effects. The confinement factor is determined from cold-cavity simulations of the in-plane TE polarised slab waveguide mode and used to convert the measured in-plane modal gain into the vertical-cavity modal gain, as required for the VCSEL structure. This gives a threshold material gain of 1440 ± 140 cm−1 at 30 °C for this structure. A comparison with the threshold material gain values determined from the lasing condition, where internal optical losses due to doping induced absorption is included using parameters taken from the literature, indicates the presence of an additional source of optical loss in the experiment which increases the threshold material gain by ∼450 cm−1. A best fit is obtained by increasing the optical loss in the n-DBR (distributed Bragg reflectors) layers to 40 cm−1, which is consistent with previous work on additional scattering losses due to interface roughening in the n-DBR layers. To further demonstrate the utility of this method for rapid optimisation, the gain-peak wavelength is measured directly, and its temperature dependence is compared to the lasing wavelength.

Design and fabrication of 940 nm vertical cavity surface emitting laser single-emitter device

As a key part of vertical cavity surface emitting laser (VCSEL), active region will seriously affect the threshold and efficiency of the device. To obtain the appropriate laser wavelength and material gain, the design of In<sub>0.18</sub>Ga<sub>0.82</sub>As strain compensated quantum well is optimized. The relationship between the lasing wavelength of multiple quantum wells (MQWs) and the thickness is calculated. Considering the influence between the active region temperature and the lasing wavelength, the thickness of the quantum well is chosen as 6 nm, and the quantum barrier thickness is chosen as 8 nm, corresponding to the lasing wavelength of 929 nm. The material gain characteristics of the MQWs at different temperatures are simulated by Rsoft. The material gain exceeds 3300/cm at 300 K, and the temperature drift coefficient of the peak wavelength is 0.3 nm/K. In this work, Al<sub>0.09</sub>Ga<sub>0.91</sub>As and A<sub>l0.89</sub>Ga<sub>0.11</sub>As are chosen as the high- and the low-refractive index material of distributed Bragg reflector (DBR), and 20 nm graded layer is inserted between two types of materials. The influence of the graded layer thickness of DBR on the valence band barrier and reflection spectrum are calculated and analyzed. The increase of graded layer thickness can lead the band barrier peak and the reflection spectrum bandwidth to decrease. The reflection spectrum and phase spectrum of P-DBR and N-DBR are calculated by the transmission matrix mode (TMM): the reflectance of DBR is over 99% and the phase shift is zero at 940 nm. The optical field distribution of the whole VCSEL structure is simulated, in which the standing wave peak overlaps with the active region, and the maximum gain can be obtained. Using the finite element method (FEM), the effect of oxidation confined layer on the injection current is simulated. The current in the active region is effectively limited to the position corresponding to the oxidation confined hole, and its current density is stronger and more uniform. The optical field distributions in different modes of photonic crystal-vertical cavity surface emitting laser (PC-VCSEL) are simulated, and different modes have different resonant wavelengths. The values of quality factor Q in different modes of VCSEL and PC-VCSEL are calculated, Q of the fundamental mode is higher than that of higher transverse mode. It is demonstrated that the photonic crystal air hole structure can realize the output of basic transverse mode by increasing the loss of high order transverse mode. The VCSEL and PC-VCSEL with oxidation hole size of 22 μm are successfully fabricated, in which the photonic crystal period is 5 μm, the air pore diameter is 2.5 μm, and the etching depth is 2 μm. Under continuous current test, the maximum slope efficiency of VCSEL is 0.66 mW/mA, the output power is 9.3 mW at 22 mA, and the lasing wavelength is 948.64 nm at 20 mA injection current. Multiple wavelengths and large spectrum width are observed in the spectrum of VSCEL, which is an obvious multi-transverse mode. The maximum fundamental transverse mode output of PC-VCSEL reaches 2.55 mW, the side mode suppression ratio (SMSR) is more than 25 dB, and the spectrum width is less than 0.2 nm, indicating that the photonic crystal air hole has a strong control effect on the transverse mode, and the laser wavelength is 946.4 nm at 17 mA.

Influence of anti-phase surface relief structure on optical mode and laser output power for 450 nm GaN-based VCSELs

For GaN-based vertical-cavity surface-emitting lasers (VCSELs), single-mode output and high power are difficult to be achieved simultaneously. In this report, we propose increasing the output power while taking the optical field into account by engineering the anti-phase surface relief structure and current aperture size for GaN-based VCSELs. We find that the proposed anti-phase surface relief structure helps to get Gaussian-shaped near-field and far-field patterns for VCSELs. However, such structure suffers from mirror loss and causes decreased laser power. Hence, the current injection aperture size has to be reduced so that the overlap level between the carrier profile and the anti-phase surface relief region can be decreased. Therefore, the VCSEL structure with enhanced laser power and dominating fundamental laser mode can be finally designed.

Nondestructive Evaluation of Detuned Wavelength for As-Grown VCSEL Epi-Wafer

We propose a nondestructive method to estimate the peak wavelength of the active quantum well (QW) region of an as-grown vertical-cavity surface-emitting laser (VCSEL) epi-wafer based on room temperature electroluminescence (EL) measurements. Contacts for the electrical excitation are established using flexible conductive materials on the epilayers without the fabrication of metal electrodes. The angle dependence of the EL properties is investigated to analyze the detuned wavelength of the active QW region for the VCSEL structure. The wavelength offset caused by detuning obtained from the as-grown epi-wafer correlates with the laser threshold properties of the VCSEL chips fabricated from the epi-wafer. The results show the possibility of a nondestructive evaluation method without metal electrodes for as-grown VCSEL epi-wafers, particularly the active QW region, which has been challenging to optically analyze from completed VCSEL epi-structures.

Inverse-cavity structure for low-threshold miniature lasers

Creating micro and nano lasers, high threshold gain is an inherent problem that have critically restricted their great technological potentials. Here, we propose an inverse-cavity laser structure where its threshold gain in the shortest-cavity regime is order-of-magnitude lower than the conventional cavity configurations. In the proposed structure, a resonant feedback mechanism efficiently transfers external optical gain to the cavity mode at a higher rate for a shorter cavity, hence resulting in the threshold gain reducing with decreasing cavity length in stark contrast to the conventional cavity structures. We provide a fundamental theory and rigorous numerical analyses confirming the feasibility of the proposed structure. Remarkably, the threshold gain reduces down by a factor ~ 10−3 for a vertical-cavity surface-emitting laser structure and ~ 0.17 for a lattice-plasmonic nanocavity structure. Therefore, the proposed approach may produce extremely efficient miniature lasers desirable for variety of applications potentially beyond the present limitations.

Modeling of surface grating-loaded VCSEL with slowing light

We propose single-mode vertical cavity surface-emitting lasers (VCSEL) based on the surface grating with various cavity lengths ranging from 10 μm to 1 cm. We present the modeling of surface grating-loaded VCSEL based on the coupled-mode theory with slowing light. Thanks to the low effective index caused by the slow-wave propagation, a shallow surface grating of a few tens nm provides large optical feedback. A narrow stop band in the surface grating-loaded VCSEL waveguide appears because of the large waveguide dispersion of slow-waves. The numerical results on coupling coefficient, mode selectivity and threshold gain are given for single-mode, long-cavity and short-cavity grating-loaded VCSELs with different grating parameters. A wide range of grating coupling strength enables a short cavity of 10 μm and a long cavity of 1 cm with a single-mode operation. The proposed VCSEL structure may open up new VCSEL platforms for low-power consumption and high-power applications.

Indirect stress and air-cavity displacement measurement of MEMS tunable VCSELs via micro-Raman and micro-photoluminescence spectroscopy

We employ micro-Raman spectroscopy to optically infer the stress experienced by the legs of a bridge-type microelectromechanical systems (MEMS) used in high contrast gratings tunable vertical cavity surface emitting lasers (VCSELs). We then employ micro-photoluminescence (PL) spectroscopy to indirectly measure the air cavity displacement of the same MEMS structure. Results from micro-Raman showed that electrostatically actuating the MEMS with a DC bias configuration yields increasing residual stress on the endpoints of the MEMS with values reaching up to 0.8 GPa. We simulated a finite element model via Comsol Multiphysics which agrees with the trend we observed based on our micro-Raman data. Our micro-PL spectroscopy showed that change in the air cavity of the VCSEL structure resulted in a change in the full width of the PL peak emitted by the layer consisting of four pairs of distributed Bragg reflectors. The change in the full width of the PL peak was due to the change in the optical cavity induced by displacing the MEMS via externally applied bias and agrees with our transfer matrix convolution simulation. These optical characterization tools can be used for failure analysis, MEMS design improvements, and monitoring of MEMS tunable VCSEL devices for mass production and manufacturing.

795-nm high-temperature and high-power operating vertical-cavity surface-emitting laser and application in atomic gyroscope

Single-transverse mode vertical-cavity surface-emitting lasers (VCSELs) are preferable optical sources for small low-power atomic sensors, including chip-scale atomic clocks, magnetometers, and gyroscopes.When VCSEL is used as the pump source of nuclear magnetic resonance gyroscope, it is required to have high single-mode output power. Oxide aperture diameter must be sufficiently small (< 4 µm) in a conventional oxide-confined VCSEL to support the fundamental mode alone. However, high series resistance (typically > 200 Ω for GaAs-based VCSEL) from the small aperture limits its output power and reliability due to excessive current-induced self-heating and high current density. It is a very attractive idea to achieve high power operation of an intrinsic single mode VCSEL based on a large oxide aperture by means of epitaxial structure design without introducing additional process steps. Transverse optical confinement in oxide-confined VCSELs crucially depends on the thickness of oxide layer and its position relative to standing wave. Modifying the structure reduces the overlap between the oxide layer and the standing wave as well as the difference in effective refractive index between core and cladding of the VCSEL, thereby reducing the number of transverse modes andincreasing the mode extension beyond oxide aperture. A 795-nm VCSEL is designed and fabricated based on this concept. A cavity structure of VCSEL with gain-cavity detuning of ~10.8 nm at room temperature is adopted in this paper. The effective refractive index and the standing wave distribution of the VCSEL are calculated, and the position of the oxide layer in the epitaxial structure of the VCSEL is optimized according to the standing wave distribution. Finally, the structure with low effective refractive index difference is obtained. The proposed device achieves high single-mode operation of 4.1 mW at 80 ℃, SMSR of 41.68 dB, and OPSR of 27.4 dB. The VCSEL is applied to a nuclear magnetic resonance gyroscope (NMRG) system as pump source due to its excellent device performance, and satisfactory test results are obtained. This paper presents a new method of designing single-mode high power VCSEL and its feasibility is also demonstrated through experimental results.

Simulation and analysis of a Single Mode Indium Gallium Arsenide Phosphide Vertical Cavity Surface Emitting Laser for Optical Communication

This present work is about simulating and analysing a Vertical Cavity Surface Emitting Laser (VCSEL) structure used in optical fibre communication systems. In this paper a VCSEL structure made of seven Quantum Wells of Indium Gallium Arsenide Phosphide (InGaAsP) emitting at 1550 nm is simulated. The device is analysed looking at the following characteristics: Direct current current and voltage (IV) characteristics, light power against electrical bias, optical gain against electrical bias, light distribution over the structure, output power and threshold current. Specification of material characteristics, ordinary physical models settings, initial VCSEL biasing, mesh declarations, declaration of laser physical models, their optical and electrical parameters were defined using Atlas syntax. Mirror ratings and quantum wells are the two main parameters that were studied and analysed to come up with structure trends. By determining important device parameters such as proper selection of the emission wavelength and choice of material; a VCSEL with an output power of 9.5 mW was simulated and compared with other structures.

High power surface grating slow-light VCSEL

We report on a novel high power vertical cavity surface emitting laser (VCSEL) with high order shallow surface grating, which enables a single mode operation even for 6 mm long devices. A high single mode power of over 3 W is obtained under pulsed operations for a 6 mm long oxide aperture. A fan-shape beam with sub-degree narrow divergence is obtained up to high injection currents of 5 A. Thanks to the low effective index of slow-light modes in a VCSEL structure, the grating pitch is over 2.5 μm, which can be made by using a standard photo-lithography. The simple fabrication process and potentials of high power and high beam quality could make the proposed laser to be a good candidate for 3D optical sensing and imaging applications.

Mechanical strain mapping of GaAs based VCSELs

We report an investigation of the strain field in mesa structures for oxide-confined vertical-cavity surface-emitting lasers (VCSELs) using the polarization-resolved micro-photoluminescence (PL) measurement of the degree of polarization (DOP) at room temperature. The DOP of the PL is correlated with the spatial distribution of the embedded anisotropic strain in a VCSEL structure. Measurements normal to (100) surfaces of the samples and from (110) cross-sectional planes were performed. The effect of two processes required in the fabrication of GaAs-based VCSELs was studied: the plasma etching of the P-doped distributed Bragg reflector and the wet oxidation process used to control current flow and lateral optical confinement. The DOP method allows very sensitive measurements of the mechanical strain (on the order of 10−5) accumulated in VCSEL devices even during different steps of the fabrication process.

Liquid crystal tunable vertical cavity surface emission laser with inner cavity sub-wavelength grating

With the rapid development of information technology, a wavelength-tunable vertical cavity surface emitting laser (VCSEL) is urgently needed as an optical signal source in dense wavelength division multiplexing (DWDM). Liquid crystal tunable VCSEL realized by utilizing the birefringence characteristics of liquid crystal has the advantages of stable polarization, high reliability, continuous wavelength tuning. In this paper, a liquid crystal tunable VCSEL structure based on intracavity sub wavelength grating is designed, and the influence of liquid crystal layer and sub wavelength grating on the wavelength tuning characteristics of VCSEL are analyzed and studied in depth. The results show that the thickness of the liquid crystal layer in the tunable VCSEL structure not only affects the wavelength tuning range, but also determines the mode hopping in the tuning process. In addition, an effective refractive index antireflection layer is formed by designing the subwavelength grating structure, and the refractive index difference between the liquid crystal layer and the semiconductor layer is optimized to further improve the wavelength tuning range and tuning efficiency. When the center wavelength is 980 nm, the tuning range is increased by 42%, reaching 41 nm, and the wavelength tuning efficiency is increased by 41%. It provides a new method of designing the VCSEL laser with high beam quality and continuous wavelength tuning.