Vertical Arrangements Research Articles

Orthogonal cutting of 3D printed multi-material workpiece: numerical investigation of machining forces, stress, and temperature distribution

AbstractWith the development of 3D metal printers for rapid prototyping and industrial component production, heightened attention was directed towards post-processing operations for achieving precise surface quality and geometrical tolerances for these components. This paper investigated the orthogonal cutting of multi-material 3D printed workpieces using a coated cutting tool through finite element simulation. The workpieces featured different horizontal and vertical arrangements of layers composed of aluminum 7075-T6 alloy (Al), stainless steel 316 low alloy (SS), and Ti6Al4V alloy (Ti). The study explored the impacts of multi-material composition, coating thickness, and the rake angle of the cutting tool on machining forces, stress distribution, temperature distribution, and chip formation geometry. The results revealed a bimodal chip morphology in the machining process of horizontally arranged SS layers combined with other alloys. The SS layer resulted in a relatively uniform chip formation, while layers with two other materials exhibited a serrated chip formation. In contrast, a discontinuous chip formed when combining Al and Ti materials, as well as in the horizontally arranged layers made of Al, SS, and Ti alloys. The cutting force increased by 2.26 times when cutting workpieces with the horizontal arrangement of SS and Al layers compared to those with a single Al material. For the horizontal and vertical arrangement of layers made of Al and SS, von Mises stress values over the edge of the coated cutting tool significantly increased where the tool contacted the SS layer. Additionally, the horizontal arrangement of layers made of Al and SS materials caused the coated cutting tool to exhibit an extensive temperature distribution, with the maximum recorded temperature reaching 1448 °K. Increasing coating thickness led to a decrease in maximum principal stress at the surface of the tool and a rise in temperature at the cutting edge of the insert.

A study on the dynamic characteristics of alternative arrangements of floating wind farms with varying hub heights

Wind farms with multiple hub heights have the potential to effectively mitigate velocity deficits resulting from wake effects and reduce the levelized cost of energy (LCOE). While existing research has predominantly focused on studying wake effects on floating wind farms with identical hub heights, there is a notable absence of research on floating wind farms with multiple hub heights. Therefore, a comprehensive understanding of the impact of vertical arrangements on floating wind farms is essential. In light of this gap, this study examines the characteristics of two distinct arrangements of a semi-submersible floating wind farm with multiple hub heights. The configuration includes two 15 MW semi-submersible floating offshore wind turbines (FOWT) and two 5 MW semi-submersible FOWTs. A novel wind farm modeling tool utilizing dynamic wake meandering (DWM) is employed to investigate the power production performance, wake characteristics, global dynamic responses, and fatigue damage of crucial components of each individual FWT, associated with the two different arrangements. The paper presents a discussion of the advantages and disadvantages of the two arrangements, accompanied by a summary of the key findings. The insights gained from this research can serve as a foundational basis for improving the design and analysis processes of floating wind farms with various arrangements.

Vertical arrays of artificial rockpools on a seawall provide refugia across tidal levels for intertidal species in the UK

Eco-engineering of coastal infrastructure aims to address the insufficient intertidal habitat provided by coastal development and flood defence. There are numerous ways to enhance coastal infrastructure with habitat features, but a common method involves retrofitting artificial rockpools. Often these are ‘bolt-on’ units that are fixed to existing coastal infrastructure but there is a paucity of literature on how to optimise their arrangement for biodiversity.In this study, 24 artificial rockpools were installed at three levels between High Water Neaps and Mean Tide Level on a vertical concrete seawall on the south coast of the UK. The species abundance of the rockpools and adjacent seawall were surveyed at low tide for 2 years following rockpool installation and compared. Over the course of the study, sediment had begun to accumulate in some of the rockpools. At the 2-year mark, the sediment was removed and assessed for macrofauna. Algal biomass of the seawall and rockpools was estimated using previously obtained dry weight values for the dominant algae taxa.After 2 years, it was determined that artificial rockpools successfully increase species richness of seawalls, particularly at higher tidal levels where water-retaining refugia are crucial for many species. The rockpools hosted 37 sessile taxa and 9 sessile taxa were recorded on the seawall. Rockpools increased the vertical elevation for brown canopy-forming seaweeds by providing better attachment surfaces. Although the retained sediment only hosted 3 infaunal species, it was observed to provide shelter for shore crabs during surveys. As sea levels and ocean and air temperatures continue to rise, vertical eco-engineering arrangements will play a crucial role in allowing species to migrate up the tidal zone, negating habitat loss and localised extinction.

Effect of corrugated plate arrangements on the performance of steel shear wall frames

Nowadays, the use of corrugated steel shear walls with sinusoidal, triangular, and trapezoidal profiles, which are stiffened steel walls without stiffener, is recommended for delaying the premature occurrence of buckling in the plate. The arrangement of corrugated plates in the structural frame alters seismic parameters; therefore, this research focuses on various arrangements of inclined corrugated plates. For this purpose, experimental specimens are first validated under cyclic quasi-static loading using ABAQUS finite element software. Subsequently, the design of four different arrangements of inclined corrugated plates with three profiles of trapezoidal, sinusoidal, and triangular is conducted and compared with vertical and horizontal arrangements. Based on the results, the triangular waveform demonstrated better energy absorption, initial stiffness, and ultimate strength. Investigation of different plate thicknesses for triangularly corrugated shear walls, including 0.75, 1.25, and 1.75 mm, showed that increasing the wall thickness improved the seismic behavior. Additionally, Arrangement No. 1 (inclined arrangement) provided the highest energy absorption and ultimate strength; however, its behavior in the hysteresis curve was asymmetric. This issue has been addressed by implementing a double arrangement of plates.

President Rule Article 356 Federalism and Issue of National Security

Federalism is an organisational structure in which authority is shared or split among all of the subordinate governmental institutions rather than being solely vested in the central government. The relationship between the Union and the States is depictedin the Indian system.Because the constitutional division of powers by levels of government can control the potential hazards that security and intelligence authorities represent for individual and collective freedoms, federalism may be preferable to unitary security regimes. Federalism, however, can also be a security problem since it is believed to obstruct effective decision-making about public safety.The legal-institutional framework and constitution of the federal system in India exhibit a unique trend. Studies on national security legislation typically centre on striking a balance between security and liberty, with the vast majority of these studies\ examining this balance along the horizontal axis between federal branches. The vertical axis and the post-9/11 emergence of state and local government in American national security legislation and policy are two additional features that this article adds to question that traditional focus. It promotes a federalist framework that places a strong emphasis on vertical intergovernmental arrangements for the longterm promotion and mediation of a wide variety of policy values. When it comes to national security intelligence and counterterrorism, the federal and local governments collaborate and sometimes clash. This federalism framework clarifies these dynamics and provides insights that can help shape future reforms.

Structural, electronic and optical properties of anisotropic AlN/BP van der Waals heterostructures with high carrier mobility and remarkable optical absorption

The structural, electronic and optical properties of van der Waals heterostructures (vdWHs) of AlN/BP 2D layers have been investigated. Using density functional theory (DFT) calculations, six distinct vertical arrangements of insulating plates composed of aluminum nitride (AlN) and boron phosphide (BP) examined. All six AlN/BP-XX (XX = AA, BB, CC, DD, EE, FF) heterostructures exhibit direct bandgap behavior with type-I band alignment. These heterostructures exhibit remarkable optical absorption in the visible and near-infrared regions, and at room temperature, charge carriers exhibit relatively high mobility for holes in one direction and for electrons in the perpendicular direction.All these six AlN/BP vdWHs have high carrier mobility (of the order of 105cm2V-1s-1), which is comparable to materials with high carrier mobility such as graphene. The energy gap of the AlN and BP monolayers are 4.04 eV and 1.4 eV, respectively, by HSE06 approximation, and for AlN/BP heterostructures are about 1.428 eV to 1.550 eV for all cases. The CBO and VBO of the AlN/BP vdWHs heterostructures are 2.21157 eV and 0.2057 eV, respectively.

Ab initio calculation of electronic and optical properties of vdWHs HfX2/BSb(X = Se,S) using density functional theory

Recently, another series of two-dimensional (2D) materials called van der Waals heterostructures (vdWhs) have attracted a lot of attention due to their outstanding properties and wide application in electronic and optical devices. Based on density functional theory (DFT) calculations, the properties of heterostructures were investigated with two different vertical arrangements, formed by two isolated sheets of HfX2(X = Se,S) and Boron antimonide(BSb) monolayer. In particular, vdW interactions are present in all these heterostructures rather than covalent bonding. All thevdWHsare semiconductor with indirect k-M band gap, for which the HSE06 functional exhibit a larger gap, but the electronic gap of all heterostructures is smaller than the electronic gap of their constituent sheets. In addition, all vdWHs show excellent optical absorption in the visible, near-infrared, and ultraviolet regions in the x direction, while the absorption peaks for all vdWHs are higher in the z direction. By fabricating heterostructures from isolated plates, their absorption power increases. The present review demonstrates an effective method for the design of novel vdWHs, and it explores their applications for photocatalytic, photovoltaic, and optical devices.

Analysis of NePCM melting flow inside a trapezoidal enclosure with hot cylinders: Effects of hot cylinders configuration and slope angle

Hot cylinders within the cavity can find diverse thermal applications, ranging from electronic devices and heat exchangers to solar systems, nuclear reactors, and the thermal design of passive cooling systems. Consequently, considering the use of phase change materials (PCM) close to hot cylinders emerges as a viable method for both cooling and storing thermal energy. In this work, two hot cylinders are arranged vertically and horizontally in the nano-enhanced phase change material (NePCM) trapezoidal enclosure with varying angles. The novelty of the current study lies in the fact that no prior research has explored the impact of hot cylinders arrangement on the melting process of a NePCM within a trapezoidal cavity, considering various inclination angles. The fixed grid, adaptive mesh refinement, and enthalpy-porosity method are used to model the melting flow. The numerical results indicate that the trapezoidal enclosure with vertically arranged hot cylinders exhibits better thermal performance than the other configuration. It is also found that the full melting time for both arrangements is minimum when the angle of the trapezoidal enclosure is γ=+40°. The reduction in full melting times for the vertical and horizontal arrangements of this angle are 25.3% and 29.6%, respectively, compared to the trapezoidal enclosure with γ=0.0°. Moreover, the NePCM with the graphite nanoplatelets (GNPs) of φ=1.0% has the shortest melting time for 0.0%≤φ≤3.0%. As future research, further exploration into the complexities of non-Newtonian NePCM flow can be pursued. Additionally, there is potential to explore modifying the cylinders' geometry into elliptical forms, encompassing a range of aspect ratios.

Exploration of production capacity-geomechanical evaluation and CO2 reinjection repair strategy in natural gas hydrate production by multilateral horizontal wells

Multilateral horizontal wells (MHW) can enhance gas production by expanding the natural gas hydrate (NGH) decomposition area, but inevitably leading to larger changes in reservoir pressure and rock stresses, causing subsidence or disasters. Therefore, this study established a THMC model that evaluated the production effect and geomechanical response of MHW in Class-I reservoirs with different permeability and proposed a CO2 reinjection repair strategy to achieve subsidence recovery and carbon storage. Results indicate that MHW with vertical branch arrangements performs best in short-term production for low-permeability reservoirs, while the temperature and pressure evolution in high-permeability reservoirs is more drastic than in low-permeability reservoirs, producing many unfavorable factors. Higher capacity also results in larger strata subsidence and stress changes, affecting the reservoir stability and wellbore safety: (i) subsidence occurs mainly in the NGH sediment and the upper zone of the wellbore; (ii) normal stresses around the wellbore increase most significantly in the vertical direction, while shear stresses generally decrease. The repair indicators of subsidence recovery rate, energy recovery rate, and hydrate conversion rate suggest that reinjecting CO2 into depleted NGH reservoirs can improve the mechanical properties of the strata and achieve carbon storage via the hydrate method as well.

Fast-tracking action on the Sustainable Development Goals by enhancing national institutional arrangements.

Six years remain to achieve the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). Despite some progress, institutional effectiveness for SDG achievement has not been delivered at a national level. Identification and establishment of an institutional framework to operationalise the 2030 Agenda within national plans, giving science-based coordination of SDG implementation a central role, is urgently required to accelerate progress. This paper tackles this challenge. Drawing on literature analysis, it asks: 1) What are the deficiencies in institutional national arrangements that hinder SDG implementation? 2) How can existing institutional deficiencies in SDG implementation be addressed? and 3) How can institutional changes support fast-tracking of SDG implementation processes at national level? Findings show that country-specific horizontal institutional arrangements are usually advanced. However, national visions to improve mainstreaming across decision-making at different levels to enable whole-of-government and whole-of-society approaches to SDG implementation are commonly under-developed. Deficiencies are due to poor systematic engagement of scientific and technical expertise in operational day-to-day communication, as well as in the design, validation, implementation, monitoring and reporting of domestic SDG-related multi-stakeholder actions. Vertical institutional arrangements are complex, and risk resource-consuming, uncoordinated implementation. Our analyses suggest countries may benefit from establishing a national, centralised independent scientific and technical coordinating body for SDG implementation at national level, within existing science-based institutional arrangements. Such a body would not be led by governmental processes but would provide technical support to government agencies. We argue that scientific and technical skills in data and information management and quality control are central to coordinated and evidence-informed support, and could help to accelerate national SDG implementation. Such a supporting body would also enable a more joined-up approach between stakeholders working in the areas of science and technology, government and practice, improving orchestrated science-based actions and their auditing across sectors and stakeholder communities at national and sub-national levels. It would further guide actions to reduce trade-offs within national sustainable development aspirations, and would facilitate consideration of diverse values in advancing towards a durable and just transformative future. Such efforts are vital given the rapidly closing window of time for SDG achievement.

An hedonic evaluation of the impacts of vertical coordination on business performance amongst apple producers in Morocco

We present an econometric analysis of the marketing of apples in Morocco that investigates the relationship between vertical coordination arrangements and the prices of apples for farmers. In this study, the hedonic method is used to evaluate the vertical coordination of apple fruit chains by analyzing the marginal implicit price of different product characteristics. We examine the variables influencing apple prices for farmers, comprising intrinsic factors related to the farm's characteristics and quality attributes such as fruit variety and fruit diameter. Additionally, we consider extrinsic variables associated with marketing factors, including vertical coordination systems, payment terms, seasonality of sale, cold storage, and geographical origin. Based on a nationally representative survey of 190 apple growers in the southeast of Morocco, an empirical analysis is conducted. Results highlight the pivotal role of apple growers' experience in elevating farm-level prices, indicating a deeper understanding of market dynamics. Significant price variations are tied to quality attributes, notably a 19.2% premium for larger apples (75–85 mm diameter), indicating market preference. The economic analysis underscores the influence of apple varieties, with Golden commanding a 16.4% higher price, indicating heightened consumer demand. Additionally, the study found that marketing factors, vertical coordination models, payment terms, seasonality of sale, cold storage, and geographical origin also have a positive impact on apple prices. Furthermore, vertical coordination models positively impact apple and prices provide producers with guidance for effective supply chain coordination. These insights, extending beyond theory, serve as a roadmap for policymakers to support the agricultural sector. Equipped with knowledge of business performance, farmers can implement targeted measures to enhance the marketing value of their agricultural products, fostering resilience and profitability in the Moroccan apple sector.

A transient free convection heat transfer study in an oil tank with vertical and horizontal arrangements of heating coils

A transient free convection heat transfer study in an oil tank with vertical and horizontal arrangements of heating coils

Theoretical Perspective of Enhancing Order in n-Doped Thermoelectric Polymers through Side Chain Engineering: The Interplay of Counterion-Backbone Interaction and Side Chain Steric Hindrance.

Donor-acceptor (D-A) copolymers doped with n-type dopants are widely sought after for their potential in organic thermoelectric devices. However, the existing structural disorder significantly hampers their charge transport and thermoelectric performance. In this Letter, we propose a mechanism to mitigate this disorder through side chain engineering. Utilizing molecular dynamics simulations, we demonstrate that strong Coulomb interactions between counterions and charged polymer backbones induce a transition in the stacking arrangement of the polymer backbones from a slipped to a vertical configuration. However, the presence of side chain steric hindrance impedes the formation of closely packed and ordered vertical stacking arrangements, resulting in greater distances between adjacent backbones and a higher level of structural disorder in the doped films. Therefore, we propose minimizing side chain steric hindrance to enhance the structural order in doped films. Our findings provide essential insights for advancing high-performance thermoelectric polymers.

Numerical investigation of thermal management of lithium ion battery pack with nano-enhanced phase change material and heat pipe

LIBs are primary power sources for EVs and their performance and life depend on operating temperature and temperature uniformity. Phase change material (PCM) as well as heat pipes and hybrid cooling systems are adopted for thermal management of LIBs at lower and higher C rates, respectively. In this study, a numerical model of a novel LIB assisted with nano-enhanced PCM (NEPCM) and heat pipes is developed, and simulated at 1C, 3C and 5C conditions, air velocities of 0.5 m/s, 1 m/s and 1.5 m/s, different cell orientations, nanoparticle (NP) concentrations, and ambient conditions. The results revealed that the horizontal cell configuration exhibits superior performance of 1.52 K lower battery pack temperature compared to vertical configuration due to heat transfer and fluid flow. The average battery pack temperature remains in the desirable temperature range for a substantial duration (65 %) of discharge process with PCM assisted battery pack at 3C condition, while it is only 20 % for naturally cooled battery pack. NEPCMs with 14.78 % and 9.11 % concentrations of NP exhibit good thermal performance in vertical and horizontal arrangements, respectively. It is also observed that the PCM assisted battery system results in thermal stratification in the battery pack which can be weakened by the inclusion of NP in PCM.

A circuit model of electrical wiring nearby building structure for lightning surge analysis

AbstractA model expressing beams, pillars, and electrical wiring in a building for lightning surge simulation by circuit analysis method is proposed in this paper. The proposed model expresses the self‐surge impedance of the electrical wiring as a function of the distance between conductors and the radius of the electrical wiring. The mutual impedance is expressed by the distance between the surfaces of a structure and a nearby wire instead of the distance between the conductor centers. In the case of two conductors having far different radii in proximity, the distribution of electromagnetic fields around the two conductors is similar in horizontal and vertical arrangements. Thus, the electrical wiring nearby pillars can be treated as a horizontal conductor. The circuit analysis results show that the voltage difference generated between the structure and the electrical wiring is calculated more precisely by the proposed model than by the conventional model.

Numerical Analysis of the Thermal-hydraulic Performance of Supercritical LNG in Airfoil Fin PCHEs

Abstract As a novel, compact, and efficient plate-fin heat exchanger, the Printed Circuit Heat Exchanger (PCHE) is a prospective candidate for liquefied natural gas (LNG) vaporization at low-temperature and high pressure. Generally, the airfoil fin PCHE has better thermal-hydraulic performance than the zigzag channel PCHE. In this study, the thermal-hydraulic performance of supercritical LNG in PCHEs with different airfoil fin types and arrangements is investigated by numerical simulations. First, the effects of six different airfoil fin types, NACA0010, NACA0020, NACA0025, NACA0030, NACA 0040, and NACA 0050, on the thermal-hydraulic performances were studied. The results show that NACA0025 has the best comprehensive heat transfer performance. Then, the effects of staggered, vertical, and horizontal pitch of the airfoil fin arrangement on thermal-hydraulic performance were investigated. The results show that the optimal values of the dimensionless number for staggered and vertical arrangements are 1 and 4, respectively. The comprehensive performance does not change much when the dimensionless horizontal pitch number exceeds 3.0. Finally, the thermal-hydraulic performance of uniformly distributed, three front sparse and rear dense, and three front dense and rear sparse distributed airfoil fins was investigated. The results show that the front dense and rear sparse airfoil fins enhance and the front sparse and rear dense airfoil fins reduce the comprehensive performance compared to the uniform arrangement. The results show that a denser arrangement of airfoil fins near the quasi-critical point can improve the comprehensive performance while keeping the number of airfoil fins constant.

Conduction Shape Factors for Thermally Active Retaining Walls

The walls of a structure below the ground level can also be utilised for exchanging heat energy from shallow depths, thereby accessing shallow geothermal energy for indoor heating and cooling, in addition to their primary role of resisting structural loads. This thermal activation of walls is achieved by installing the heat exchanger pipes at the time of construction of the wall, and these are commonly termed energy walls. These energy walls are used for underground parking spaces, basements and underground stations. For the efficient thermal design of these structures, simple analytical solutions are required to characterise their heat transfer. In this extended abstract, we compare the temperature change computed across energy walls for different calculation methods, including steady-state shape factors and numerical approaches.
 Energy walls follow a repetitive pipe arrangement which can be installed horizontally and vertically; however, vertical arrangements are more common due to ease of installation [1]. This leads to a simplified repetitive geometry shown in Figure 1(a), where the pipe is placed closest to the ground, whether we assume a constant temperature, and the other side of the wall is assumed insulated as per [2]. These pipe arrangements within walls can be compared with pipes buried in the ground, e.g. for district heating or other applications (Figure 1(b), (c)). These buried pipes, mostly large-diameter pipes, carry fluids at higher temperatures for large distances, making understanding heat transfer and heat losses extremely important. Therefore, heat conduction in this field has been explored in more detail with the result that shape factors for steady-state heat transfer are readily available [3].
 Conduction shape factors (S) are easy to apply and can be used to assess the temperature difference between the heat transfer fluid and the back of the energy wall (TC) due to the thermal resistance (R) of the wall concrete via equation (2). There are two shape factors which are tested in the work; SB1=single buried pipe (Figure 1(c), equation (3) [4] and SB2=equally spaced buried pipes (Figure 1(b), equation (4)) [4], and compared to steady state shape factor (SN) calculated numerically. The reason for testing them both is because the pipes in the wall are of minimal diameter, 20mm to 28mm, compared with wall dimensions of 0.4m to 1.2m or pipe spacing of 0.3m to 0.8m. TC calculated from the two shape factors is compared with results from two numerical models for a range of geometries. At first, the geometry shown in Figure 1(a) is solved for the steady state, after which a ground length is added to it, the transient state is analysed, and TC is calculated via equation (1).
 …(1) …(2)
 …(3) …(4)
 where Q (W/m) is the heat flux, S is the shape factor, s is spacing between the consecutive pipes (m), D is the pipe diameter(m), and K is the thermal conductivity of concrete (W/mK). TP and TW are the temperature changes at the temperature changes The results are presented in Figure 1 for varying pipe spacing and wall thicknesses: wall thickness W=0.6m, 0.8m, 1m, and 1.2m; 3 pipe spacing s=0.3m, 0.5m, and 0.8m. In all cases, the pipes are 25mm in diameter and offset 75mm from the back of the wall. Constant heat flux per unit area, q=12*s W/m2, is applied for 1 year in the case of the transient analysis.
 he buried pipes in the ground form a good analogy with the embedded pipes of energy walls for the calculation of temperature changes due to thermal resistivity. Compared to the results from the steady state numerical analysis, TSN, TC from the equally spaced pipes model has an accuracy between 99.1-99.7%, while that from the single buried pipe model has an accuracy between 81.5-97.3%. This shows that for shape factors in energy walls, pipe spacing is essential, but wall thickness does not play such a significant role in the general range. Therefore, in Figure 1(e), the steady-state responses from different thicknesses overlaps. However, when the effect of the ground behind the wall is included for the transient simulation, the results at a pseudo-steady state are not identical and depend on the pipe spacing and wall thickness. Models with smaller wall thicknesses reach a steady-state-like condition quicker, whereas models with higher wall thicknesses may need almost a year to reach a steady state. Through this analysis, it can be concluded that the shape factors used for the buried pipe can also be used for the energy walls. Of the two studied shape factors, the formulation SB2 shows values very similar to the numerically calculated values.

Novel radiation hard position sensitive detector using YAG:Ce fibers for ion beam instrumentation at FRIB

We are investigating the feasibility of a new detector concept for use in the beam line at the Facility for Rare Isotope Beams (FRIB). The detector is designed to withstand the high ion beam intensities and the high radiation environment while providing position, timing, and energy information. Based on the concept of a fiber detector, the device uses YAG:Ce crystals as sensing material, chosen for their extreme radiation tolerance to electromagnetic or hadronic exposure. The crystals are machined into long and thin rods which are laid out in orthogonal horizontal and vertical arrangements to obtain spatial sensitivity to impinging particles. The readout is performed at the extremities of the rods with strip Multi Pixel Photon Counters (MPPC) also referred to as Silicon Photomultipliers (SiPM) arrays model S13552 from Hamamatsu mounted on ribbon cables with connector ends.

Transactions Costs Approach and Application to Vertical Coordination Arrangements in Moroccan Apple Marketing

Transactions Costs Approach and Application to Vertical Coordination Arrangements in Moroccan Apple Marketing

Investigations of electrical interference of vertical earth rod arrangements

For the reliable and safe operation of electrical installations, the dissipation of natural and human-made electrical currents into the earth is of great importance. In order to safely dissipate such currents into the earth in a well-controlled manner, blank electrical conductors are specifically inserted into the earth and galvanically connected to the electrical installation. The construct of earth-sensitive conductors (earth electrodes) forms the earthing arrangement. Due to the present conductivity of the earth, galvanically separated earth electrodes interfere electrically through mutual transiting currents. This paper shows geometric arrangements of earth electrodes inserted vertically into the earth, including the effects of the electrical interference on the currents dissipated into the earth, (partial) fault voltages, as well as the resistance to earth by means of calculations. The soil layering and the varying electrical conductivity of the layers are also taken into account. In order to verify the calculations, measurements of the resistances to earth of the vertical earth rods were carried out in a substation in construction.