Verification Paradigm Research Articles

Perceptual representations in L1 and L2 spatial and abstract language processing: applying an innovative sentence-diagram verification paradigm.

Perceptual representations in language comprehension were examined using sentence-picture verification tasks. However, concerns have been raised regarding the suitability of concrete pictures for representing abstract concepts compared to image-schematic diagrams. To assess the perceptual representations of spatial and abstract domains in both first language (L1) and second language (L2) processing, the study tests bilingual speakers' mental imagery on the basis of the simulation-based L1 comprehension model and proposes a simulation-based L2 comprehension model, supported by empirical evidence from an innovative sentence-diagram verification paradigm. 41 adult L1 Mandarin Chinese speakers participated in the study. 21 participants completed the Chinese sentence-diagram verification task (Experiment 1), while 20 participants completed the translation-equivalent version in L2 English (Experiment 2). Participants read a sentence [e.g., A diligent worker walked into the office (spatial sense); A strong team headed into the final (abstract sense)] at their self-paced speed, followed by a congruent (e.g., into diagram) or incongruent diagram (e.g., out-of diagram), and made binary judgments to verify spatial configurations between the sentence and diagram. Semantic rating tasks in both Chinese and English were also conducted to validate congruency between diagrams and sentences in both languages. Results from Experiment 1 indicate overall compatibility effects on L1 Chinese processing, unaffected by directional verbs or abstractness of sense. Results from Experiment 2 reveal interference effects on L2 English processing, with interference observed only after reading sentences encoding spatial senses, not abstract senses. Aligning with previous findings using sentence-picture verification tasks, the current findings confirm the weaker mental simulation effects in L2 processing compared to L1 processing. These findings extend the existing simulation-based L1 comprehension model, provide empirical support for the proposed simulation-based L2 comprehension model, and validate the innovative sentence-diagram verification paradigm for examining image-schematic representations in spatial and abstract language processing among Chinese-English bilinguals. The paradigm holds significant potential for research on perceptual representations in processing a broader range of grammatical and semantic properties during both online and offline L1 and L2 comprehension.

Differences in perceptual representations in multilinguals' first, second, and third language.

Two experiments were conducted to investigate the differences in perceptual representations among multilingual individuals. In Experiment 1, the immediate sentence-picture verification paradigm was used to investigate perceptual representations in the working memory stage. The results suggest a match effect within the first language (Cantonese), but not within the second language (Mandarin) or the third language (English), showing perceptual representations only in first language comprehension. In Experiment 2, the delayed sentence-picture verification paradigm was used to investigate perceptual representations in long-term memory. Similarly, the results suggest a match effect within the first language (Mandarin), but not within the second language (English). The findings of both experiments suggest that the first language was perceptually represented, regardless of whether it was Cantonese or Mandarin, regardless of the processing in working memory or long-term memory. No evidence was found for perceptual representations in the later-learned languages, regardless of high or low proficiency. Our study has implications for theories of language comprehension and embodied cognition.

Can prediction error explain predictability effects on the N1 during picture-word verification?

Abstract Do early effects of predictability in visual word recognition reflect prediction error? Electrophysiological research investigating word processing has demonstrated predictability effects in the N1, or first negative component of the event-related potential (ERP). However, findings regarding the magnitude of effects and potential interactions of predictability with lexical variables have been inconsistent. Moreover, past studies have typically used categorical designs with relatively small samples and relied on by-participant analyses. Nevertheless, reports have generally shown that predicted words elicit less negative-going (i.e., lower amplitude) N1s, a pattern consistent with a simple predictive coding account. In our preregistered study, we tested this account via the interaction between prediction magnitude and certainty. A picture-word verification paradigm was implemented in which pictures were followed by tightly matched picture-congruent or picture-incongruent written nouns. The predictability of target (picture-congruent) nouns was manipulated continuously based on norms of association between a picture and its name. ERPs from 68 participants revealed a pattern of effects opposite to that expected under a simple predictive coding framework.

Teleneuropsychology intervention in phonological awareness for children with specific learning disorder with reading and mathematical difficulties

Specific learning disorder (SLD) is a neurodevelopmental disorder that affects 5–15% of school-aged children worldwide. Often, difficulties in reading (SLD-RD) and mathematics (SLD-MD) occur together. Deficits in phonological awareness (PA) have been identified as the common factor between the two difficulties. Intervention in PA has been shown to be effective in SLD-RD; however, it is not clear whether it is also effective in SLD-MD. Neuropsychological intervention is usually conducted face-to-face, but when the patient is in a remote location or during extraordinary situations such as the COVID-19 pandemic, tele neuropsychology (TeleNP) may be a suitable alternative. The objective of this study was to evaluate the efficacy of a telerehabilitation program for PA to improve math skills in children with SLD-RD/SLD-MD. The study had an N-of-1 SCED design, and included six children aged 10–12 years with SLD-RD/SLD-MD. After four baseline measurements with an arithmetic verification paradigm, they were treated with TeleNP-PA. The effect on each participant was evaluated using visual analysis and the reliable change index. After the intervention, all participants showed improvement in arithmetic tasks, suggesting that the PA intervention had a positive influence on these skills.

The influences of narrative perspective shift and scene detail on narrative semantic processing

Abstract The embodied view of semantic processing holds that readers achieve reading comprehension through mental simulation of the objects and events described in the narrative. However, it remains unclear whether and how the encoding of linguistic factors in narrative descriptions impacts narrative semantic processing. This study aims to explore this issue under the narrative context with and without perspective shift, which is an important and common linguistic factor in narratives. A sentence-picture verification paradigm combined with eye-tracking measures was used to explore the issue. The results showed that (1) the inter-role perspective shift made the participants’ to evenly allocate their first fixation to different elements in the scene following the new perspective; (2) the internal–external perspective shift increased the participants’ total fixation count when they read the sentence with the perspective shift; (3) the scene detail depicted in the picture did not influence the process of narrative semantic processing. These results suggest that perspective shift can disrupt the coherence of situation model and increase the cognitive load of readers during reading. Moreover, scene detail could not be constructed by readers in natural narrative reading.

Recitation of The Holy Quran Verses Recognition System Based on Speech Recognition Techniques

Arabic is the language in which the Holy Quran was revealed to Mohammed (S.A.W). Muslims claim that the Holy Quran has not been tampered with since it has been preserved. The Arabic Quran should be read exactly as it has been written. With the flourishment of Islam and the appearance of faults in Quran’s recitation, the experts created Tajweed to preserve Allah's revelation. The Holy Quran's authenticity and purity must be protected from erasure or contamination. The current study examined speech recognition techniques used in the Quran’s recitation along with their strengths and faults. Moreover, it also examined the Quranic text verification paradigm. The development of a computer-aided system, to automatically learn the Holy Quran's recitation, is a practical learning technique. Computer-aided Programming Language (CAPL) has gained popularity in recent years. Moreover, numerous researches have been conducted so far to improve these methods, especially in second-language instruction. Computer technologies can help language teachers with pronunciation and accent reduction. The computers play an essential role in automated tutoring. With the help of computer, words can be learned at home. CAPL's strict application is to automate the Holy Quran’s recitation unlike a language-learning exercise, where many pronunciations may be appropriate. There is minimal opportunity for variation while reciting the Holy Quran in Arabic language. The current study presented a concept for Quran’s recitation verification system along with an overview of Quran’s voice recognition techniques.

AHB Interconnect - Functional Verification

This paper offers an in-depth exploration of the verification procedure pertaining to the integration of an Advanced High-performance Bus (AHB) Interconnect module. The verification process holds pivotal significance within chip development, entailing thorough validation and examination of the hardware design before entering the mass production phase. The principal objective of this verification process is to meticulously unearth potential bugs or imperfections embedded in the design, which could potentially trigger undesirable outcomes, compromised performance, or even critical malfunctions in the final product. At the heart of this verification approach lies the functional verification paradigm, centered around simulation-based testing. Within this framework, the AHB Interconnect module is instantiated in a controlled verification environment designed to emulate real-world scenarios. This environment orchestrates input stimuli to the module and captures ensuing outputs generated by it. The environment is meticulously programmed to anticipate specific behavioral patterns from the module. Deviations from these anticipated behaviors are promptly flagged as errors. This meticulous methodology serves to guarantee that the module aligns with its intended operations and strictly adheres to predefined functional benchmarks. The paper is dedicated to Acad. Florin Gheorghe Filip, at his 15th anniversary as the Chairman of the Information Science and Technology Section of the Romanian Academy, and at his 75th anniversary.

Related consistent lures increase the judgment of multiplication facts: Evidence using event-related potential technique.

Simple multiplication errors are primarily shown in whether the lures are related to the operands (relatedness, such as 3 × 4 = 15 vs. 17) or whether the same decades are shared with the correct answers (consistency, such as 3 × 4 = 16 vs. 21). This study used a delayed verification paradigm and event-related potential technique to investigate the effects of relatedness and consistency in simple multiplication mental arithmetic for 30 college students in an experiment of presenting probes in auditory channels. We found that, compared to the related inconsistent lures, the related consistent lures showed significantly faster reaction time and induced significantly large amplitudes of N400 and late positive component. The findings suggest that related consistent lures are less affected by the activation diffusion of the arithmetic problem, and the credibility of being perceived as the correct answer is less; the lures related to operands and sharing the same decades with the accurate results can promote the judgment of multiplication mental arithmetic, and the results support the Interacting Neighbors Model.

Testing Small-Scale Vitality Measurement Based on 5D Model Assessment with Multi-Source Data: A Resettlement Community Case in Suzhou

In China’s fourteenth five-year plan, urban regeneration has become one of the most crucial strategies for activating the existing cities. Since creating vibrant urban spaces is a critical component of urban regeneration, understanding the patterns of community vitality helps formulate reactive regeneration policies and design interventions. However, the lack of local-scale measurement criteria and data collection methods has posed significant constraints to assessing and rejuvenating community vitality. Taking Suzhou Nanhuan New Village as a study area, our research involved a comparative study approach to investigate the fundamental driving mechanism of urban vitality with the support of a theoretical model (5D theory), multi-source data input, real-time photography technologies, and statistical analysis tools (Analytic Hierarchy Process). The result shows at the community level, the original ‘3d’ dimensions (‘Density’, ‘Diversity’, ‘Design’) remain key elements for forming vibrant spatial quality and functionality, and density factors matter significantly. This study intends to provide a new paradigm for small-scale community vitality assessment, verification, and regeneration by combining urban morphology with people-oriented and environmental-oriented perspectives. This research could support quantitative research on creating vibrant high-density communities in the urban regeneration process and bring insights to academics and design practitioners.

A Simulation-Guided Paradigm for Logic Synthesis and Verification

This article proposes a new logic synthesis and verification paradigm based on circuit simulation. In this paradigm, high quality, expressive simulation patterns are pregenerated to be reused in multiple runs of optimization and verification algorithms, resulting in reduced time-consuming Boolean computations such as satisfiability (SAT) solving. Methods to generate expressive simulation patterns are presented and compared, and a bit-packing technique to compress them is integrated into the implementation. The generated patterns are shown to be reusable across different algorithms and after network function modifications. A logic synthesis algorithm, Boolean resubstitution, and a verification algorithm, combinational equivalence checking, are two examples of using this paradigm. In simulation-guided Boolean resubstitution, simulation patterns are used for efficient filtering of optimization choices, leading to a lower cost in expanding the search space. By adopting the proposed paradigm, we achieve a 5.9% reduction in the number of AIG nodes, compared to 3.7% by a state-of-the-art resubstitution algorithm, within comparable runtime. In simulation-guided equivalence checking, the number of SAT solver calls is reduced by 9.5% with the use of the expressive simulation patterns accumulated in earlier logic synthesis stages.

Negative implicit in-group stereotypes of Chinese male drug abusers: evidence from ERP.

Psychological dependence is the most important factor leading to relapse, few studies have examined whether in-group stereotypes exist in drug abusers, while it's helpful for drug abusers in getting rid of psychological dependence. To investigate the presence of in-group stereotypes and the neural mechanisms in drug abusers, two experiments were designed in this study. Experiment 1 used a classification–verification paradigm and Experiment 2 used The Extrinsic Affect Simon Task (EAST), simultaneous collection of EEG data from China. 18 and 17 males were analyzed respectively in Experiment 1 and 2. The results in Experiment 1 showed that (1) there was no significant difference in reaction times or N400 amplitude between the condition "Drug abusers-Negative words" and the condition "Drug abusers-Positive words". In Experiment 2, we found that (2) participants in the condition "Drug abusers-Negative words" scored higher in accuracy rates than in the condition "Drug abusers-Positive words". (3) Participants in the condition "Drug abusers-Negative words" were shorter than "Drug abusers-Positive words" in reaction times (RTs). (4) Participants in the condition "Drug abusers-Negative words" were lower than "Drug abusers-Positive words" in the peak of N400. The conclusion is that there are significant negative implicit in-group stereotypes among Chinese male drug abusers. The experimental results and the uniqueness of Chinese male drug abusers in this study were discussed.

Visual perspective taking is not automatic in a simplified Dot task: Evidence from newly sighted children, primary school children and adults

In the Dot task, children and adults involuntarily compute an avatar's visual perspective, which has been interpreted by some as automatic Theory of Mind. This interpretation has been challenged by other researchers arguing that the task reveals automatic attentional orienting. Here we tested a new interpretation of previous findings: the seemingly automatic processes revealed by the Dot task result from the high Executive Control demands of this verification paradigm, which taxes short-term memory and imposes perspective-switching costs. We tested this hypothesis in three experiments conducted in India with newly sighted children (Experiment 1; N = 5; all girls), neurotypical children (Experiment 2; ages 5–10; N = 90; 38 girls) and adults (Experiment 3; N = 30; 18 women) in a highly simplified version of the Dot task. No evidence of automatic perspective-taking was observed, although all groups revealed perspective-taking costs. A newly sighted child and the youngest children in our sample also showed an egocentric bias, which disappeared by age 10, confirming that visual perspective taking develops during the school years. We conclude that the standard Dot task imposes such methodological demands on both children and adults that the alleged evidence of automatic processes (either mindreading or domain general) may simply reveal limitations in Executive Control.

Semantic Feature Driven Consensus-Based Model for Software Reliability Assessment: A Reusability Sensitive Verification Paradigm

Semantic Feature Driven Consensus-Based Model for Software Reliability Assessment: A Reusability Sensitive Verification Paradigm

Canonical Face Embeddings

We present evidence that many common convolutional neural networks (CNNs) trained for face verification learn functions that are nearly equivalent under rotation. More specifically, we demonstrate that one face verification model’s embeddings (i.e., last–layer activations) can be compared directly to another model’s embeddings after only a rotation or linear transformation, with little performance penalty. This finding is demonstrated using IJB-C 1:1 verification across the combinations of ten modern off-the-shelf CNN-based face verification models which vary in training dataset, CNN architecture, method of angular loss calculation, or some combination of the 3. These networks achieve a mean true accept rate of 0.96 at a false accept rate of 0.01. When instead evaluating embeddings generated from two CNNs, where one CNN’s embeddings are mapped with a linear transformation, the mean true accept rate drops to 0.95 using the same verification paradigm. Restricting these linear maps to only perform rotation produces a mean true accept rate of 0.91. These mappings’ existence suggests that a common representation is learned by models despite variation in training or structure. We discuss the broad implications a result like this has, including an example regarding face template security.

Salient alternatives facilitate implicatures.

Sentences can be enriched by considering what the speaker does not say but could have done, the alternative. We conducted two experiments to test whether the salience of the alternative contributes to how people derive implicatures. Participants responded true or false to underinformative categorical sentences that involved quantifiers. Target sentences were sometimes preceded by the alternative and sometimes by a control sentence. When the target was preceded by the alternative, response times to implicature responses were faster than when preceded by the control sentence. This suggests that (1) alternative salience influences higher-level reasoning (2) the cost of deriving implicatures in sentence verification paradigms is due in part to low alternative salience.

What second-language speakers can tell us about pragmatic processing.

Upon hearing the phrase Some cats meow, a listener might pragmatically infer that ‘Some but not all cats meow’. This is known as a scalar implicature and it often arises when a speaker produces a weak linguistic expression instead of a stronger one. Several L2 studies claim that pragmatic inferences are generated by default and their comprehension presents no challenges to L2 learners. However, the evidence obtained from these studies largely stems from offline-based tasks that provide limited information about how scalar implicatures are processed. This study investigated scalar implicature processing among L2 speakers of English and the degree to which differences in L2 proficiency and Theory of Mind abilities would modulate pragmatic responding. The experiment used an online sentence verification paradigm that required participants to judge, among multiple control items, the veracity of under-informative sentences, such as Some cats are mammals, and to respond as quickly as possible. A true response to this item is indicative of a logical some and perhaps all reading and a false response to a pragmatic some but not all reading. Our results showed evidence that scalar inferences are not generated by default. The answer linked to the pragmatic reading some but not all took significantly longer to make relative to the answer that relies on the logical interpretation some and perhaps all. This processing slowdown was also significantly larger among participants with lower English proficiency. Further exploratory analyses of participants’ Theory of Mind, as measured by the Social Skill subscale in the Autism Spectrum Quotient, revealed that socially inclined participants are more likely than the socially disinclined to derive a scalar inference. These results together provide new empirical insights into how L2 learners process scalar implicatures and thus implications for processing theories in experimental pragmatics and second language acquisition.

Bridging the gap between single- and multi-model predictive runtime verification

This paper presents an extension of the Predictive Runtime Verification (PRV) paradigm to consider multiple models of the System Under Analysis (SUA). We call this extension Multi-Model PRV. Typically, PRV attempts to predict the satisfaction or violation of a property based on a trace and a (single) formal model of the SUA. However, contemporary node- or component-based systems (e.g. robotic systems) may benefit from monitoring based on a model of each component. We show how a Multi-Model PRV approach can be applied in either a centralised or a compositional way (where the property is compositional), as best suits the SUA. Crucially, our approach is formalism-agnostic. We demonstrate our approach using an illustrative example of a Mars Curiosity rover simulation and evaluate our contribution via a prototype implementation.

Rules of order: Evidence for a novel influence on ordinal processing of numbers.

Research on how people process numerical order carries implications for our theoretical understanding of what a number means and our practical understanding of the foundation upon which more sophisticated mathematics is built. Current thinking posits that ordinal processing of numbers is linked to repeated practice with the integer count list, but the mechanisms underlying this link remain unclear. For instance, in standard ordinal verification paradigms, participants more rapidly and accurately verify that count-list sequences (e.g., 3-4-5) are "in-order" than non-count-list sequences (e.g., 2-4-6), although it remains unclear whether this is due to strong count-list processing or poor non-count-list processing. If the count list primarily facilitates ordinal processing of count-list sequences, then forcing participants to classify sequences like 3-4-5 as "not-in-order" should adversely affect ordinal verification performance. We found that it does, but only moderately in single-digit sequences (d = -.26), and not at all in the case of double-digit sequences (d = -.02). Alternatively, the count list may influence ordinal processing in an exclusionary manner, creating a tendency to view anything that does not match the count-list as not-in-order. If so, then allowing participants to classify ordered (but non-count-list) sequences like 2-4-6 as not-in-order should improve ordinal verification performance. It did, with strong effects for both single-digit (d = .74) and double-digit sequences (d = 1.04). Furthermore, we demonstrated that the reverse distance effect found in standard ordinal verification paradigms is driven primarily by poor non-count-list processing. Taken together, our results advance our understanding of the mechanisms by which the count list shapes ordinal processing, even in highly numerate adults. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2021 APA, all rights reserved).

Adopting and improving a new forecasting paradigm

ABSTRACT A large and growing body of research suggests that when it comes to forecasting, the process-oriented paradigm prevalent in the Allied intelligence community (IC) acts as a drag on forecasting accuracy. A new verification-oriented paradigm has been developed over the past decades, which produces more accurate forecasts and therefore should be put into practice. However, the accuracy achievable by the new verification paradigm does not yet satisfy the needs of the clients of IC practitioners. IC scholars should improve the verification paradigm by recognizing that IC forecasts typically pertain to complex situations, and therefore require the tools, methods and concepts found in complexity science.

The Post-verbal Effect of Negators in Mongolian Contradictory Negations Provides Support for the Fusion Model.

There are two contending models regarding the processing of negation: the fusion model and the schema-plus-tag model. Most previous studies have centered on negation in languages such as English and Mandarin, where negators are positioned before predicates. Mongolian, quite uniquely, is a language whose negators are post-verbal, making them natural replicas of the schema-plus-tag model. The present study aims to investigate the representation process of Mongolian contradictory negative sentences to shed light on the debate between the models, meanwhile verifying the post-verbal effect of negators. A series of experiments using the sentence–picture verification paradigm supports the fusion model: (i) Mongolian contradictory negative sentences were processed by representing the actual conditions rather than the negated state of affairs at 250 ISI (interstimulus interval of 250 ms), and (ii) despite the fact that a post-verbal effect of negators was measured at 250 ISI when Mongolian and Mandarin negative sentences were compared, Mongolian–Mandarin bilinguals adopted the same representational strategy for contradictory negation in both languages.