Verbal Working Memory Resources Research Articles

Cognitive Resources in Working Memory: Domain-Specific or General?

An experiment in the dual-task paradigm was carried out to explore the nature of domain-specific and domain-general resource distribution in working memory. The subjects (N = 32) performed symmetry span and letter reading span tasks under visuospatial (tapping) and verbal (articulatory suppression) cognitive load. The effects of task type and cognitive load modality were analyzed. The results are described within the concentric model framework: significant distinctions in relative accuracy under visuospatial and verbal cognitive load in visuospatial and verbal tasks were observed when N elements in the set exceeded the region of direct access capacity, while no such effect was observed for 2-3 element sets. This is attributed to domain-general resources in the region of direct access, and domain-specific resources in the activated long-term memory. We also found evidence for the asymmetric distribution of visuospatial and verbal working memory resources in that the verbal component is more susceptible to cognitive load.

Memory for route and survey descriptions across the adult lifespan: The role of verbal and visuospatial working memory resources

Spatial representations of an environment involve different perspectives and can derive from different inputs, including spatial descriptions. While it is well-established that memory of visually-encoded spatial representations declines with increasing age, less is known about age-related changes in recalling verbally-encoded spatial information. We examined the lifespan trajectories of memory recall for route (person-centred) and survey (object-centred) spatial descriptions and compared it to non-spatial verbal memory in a sample (N = 168) of young, middle-aged, young-old, and old-old adults. We also examined the mediating role of both verbal and visuospatial short-term and working memory capacity in accounting for age-dependent changes in non-spatial verbal and spatial-verbal (route and survey) memory recall. Age-related differences emerged across all memory recall tasks, however, the onset and rate of changes was earlier and steeper for spatial descriptions compared to non-spatial verbal recall. Interestingly, the age effect on route recall was partially mediated by age-related changes in both verbal and visuospatial working memory capacity, but survey recall was associated only with visuospatial working memory, while non-spatial verbal recall was associated only with verbal working memory resources. Theoretical and practical implications of these findings for spatial cognition and ageing models are discussed.

Verbal working memory and co-speech gesture processing

Multimodal discourse requires an assembly of cognitive processes that are uniquely recruited for language comprehension in social contexts. In this study, we investigated the role of verbal working memory for the online integration of speech and iconic gestures. Participants memorized and rehearsed a series of auditorily presented digits in low (one digit) or high (four digits) memory load conditions. To observe how verbal working memory load impacts online discourse comprehension, ERPs were recorded while participants watched discourse videos containing either congruent or incongruent speech-gesture combinations during the maintenance portion of the memory task. While expected speech-gesture congruity effects were found in the low memory load condition, high memory load trials elicited enhanced frontal positivities that indicated a unique interaction between online speech-gesture integration and the availability of verbal working memory resources. This work contributes to an understanding of discourse comprehension by demonstrating that language processing in a multimodal context is subject to the relationship between cognitive resource availability and the degree of controlled processing required for task performance. We suggest that verbal working memory is less important for speech-gesture integration than it is for mediating speech processing under high task demands.

Verbal working memory resources and comprehension of relative clauses in children with cochlear implants

Verbal working memory resources may impact syntax comprehension. Thirteen Italian children with cochlear implants (CIs) were assessed in relative clause (RC) comprehension, digit span and nonword repetition and compared to 13 chronological age peers (CA) and 13 younger controls (LA) with normal hearing (NH). The RC comprehension task tested subject relatives (SR), object relatives with preverbal (OR) and postverbal subjects (ORp) where number features were manipulated. Children with CIs show worse performance than controls in RC comprehension and nonword repetition. In the RC task, number features facilitated comprehension by children with NH, but not by children with CIs. The memory measure that predicted RC comprehension was digit span. In the LA group, backward digit span predicted comprehension of all RC types. Forward digit span predicted comprehension of ORs with number mismatch in the CA group, and comprehension of ORs with number mismatch and ORps in children with CIs. In these conditions, high memory resources are needed to exploit number features in theta-role assignment.

Verbal working memory and early literacy acquisition: do ELLs allocate resources similar to their typical monolingual peers or monolingual children with SLI?

ABSTRACT The role of verbal working memory (VWM) in early language and literacy development among typical and atypical monolingual children exposed to different orthographies is well established. Less is known how English Language Learners (ELLs) allocate their VWM resources in early stages of literacy acquisition in English (L2). This study examined the role of phonological (PM) and working memory (WM) in L2 decoding, sight word recognition and spelling among ELLs attending kindergarten in an urban Title I school. The results of ELLs’ assessments across cognitive and linguistic reading pre-requisites were compared to the assessments on the same measures of typical and specific language impaired (SLI) monolingual peers. Despite decreased vocabulary and lower phonological awareness (PA) skills ELLs did not differ from typical monolingual peers on VWM skills and early literacy outcomes, but outperformed SLIs. However, ELLs relied exclusively on PM for decoding and spelling, which differed from typical monolingual peers. These results provide important information regarding L2 language and early literacy development among Spanish-speaking ELLs, and should help to conceptualize the educational strategies for supporting ELLs based on their L1 structure. Measure of PM may be discriminating criteria between ELLs and SLIs, as poor PM is an established marker for SLI.

Cálculo mental en niños y su relación con habilidades cognitivas

This study aimed to analyze whether verbal working memory (WM), visual-spatial WM, processing speed, and verbal ability predicted children's ability to perform mental arithmetic. Five tests were administered to 70 6-years-old children: the Vocabulary and Digits Span subtests from the WISC-III Intelligence Scale, the Animal Pegs subtest from WPPSI-R, and an arithmetic test (ad hoc). A linear regression analysis showed that only visual-spatial WM predicted the variability in children's scores in the arithmetic test (t=4.72; P<.001; β=.50). These findings contradict studies carried out in adults and older children where verbal WM seemed to play a greater role in the subject's ability to conduct calculations without external aids. It is possible that as they grow older, the automation of certain counting processes, as well as the storage and recovery of arithmetic knowledge from long-term memory will cause them to rely primarily on verbal WM resources.

Visuospatial and verbal memory in mental arithmetic

Working memory allows complex information to be remembered and manipulated over short periods of time. Correlations between working memory and mathematics achievement have been shown across the lifespan. However, only a few studies have examined the potentially distinct contributions of domain-specific visuospatial and verbal working memory resources in mental arithmetic computation. Here we aimed to fill this gap in a series of six experiments pairing addition and subtraction tasks with verbal and visuospatial working memory and interference tasks. In general, we found higher levels of interference between mental arithmetic and visuospatial working memory tasks than between mental arithmetic and verbal working memory tasks. Additionally, we found that interference that matched the working memory domain of the task (e.g., verbal task with verbal interference) lowered working memory performance more than mismatched interference (verbal task with visuospatial interference). Findings suggest that mental arithmetic relies on domain-specific working memory resources.

Working memory strategies during rational number magnitude processing.

Rational number understanding is a critical building block for success in more advanced mathematics; however, how rational number magnitudes are conceptualized is not fully understood. In the current study, we used a dual-task working memory (WM) interference paradigm to investigate the dominant type of strategy (i.e., requiring verbal WM resources vs. requiring primarily visuospatial WM resources) used by adults when processing rational number magnitudes presented in both decimal and fraction notation. Analyses revealed no significant differences in involvement of verbal and visuospatial WM, regardless of notation (fractions vs. decimals), indicating that adults rely upon a mix of strategies and WM resources when processing rational number magnitudes. However, this pattern interacted with algebra ability such that those performing better on the algebra assessment relied upon both verbal and visuospatial WM when engaging in rational number comparisons, whereas rational number performance by adults with low algebra fluency was affected only by a simultaneous verbal WM task. Together, results support previous work implicating the involvement of WM resources in rational number processing and is the first study to indicate that the involvement of both verbal and visuospatial WM, as opposed to relying primarily on verbal WM, when processing rational number magnitudes may be indicative of higher mathematical proficiency in the domain of algebra. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2017 APA, all rights reserved)

The Contribution of Verbal Working Memory to Deaf Children's Oral and Written Production.

This study investigated the contribution of verbal working memory to the oral and written story production of deaf children. Participants were 29 severely to profoundly deaf children aged 8–13 years and 29 hearing controls, matched for grade level. The children narrated a picture story orally and in writing and performed a reading comprehension test, the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children-Fourth Edition forward digit span task, and a reading span task. Oral and written stories were analyzed at the microstructural (i.e., clause) and macrostructural (discourse) levels. Hearing children’s stories scored higher than deaf children’s at both levels. Verbal working memory skills contributed to deaf children’s oral and written production over and above age and reading comprehension skills. Verbal rehearsal skills (forward digit span) contributed significantly to deaf children’s ability to organize oral and written stories at the microstructural level; they also accounted for unique variance at the macrostructural level in writing. Written story production appeared to involve greater verbal working memory resources than oral story production.

The role of the working memory and language skills in the prediction of word problem solving in 4- to 7-year-old children

The aim of this study was to analyse the role of verbal and visuo-spatial working memory (WM) and language skills (vocabulary, listening comprehension) in predicting preschool and kindergarten-aged children’s ability to solve mathematical word problems presented orally. The participants were 116 Finnish-speaking children aged 4–7 years. The results showed that verbal WM (VWM) did not have a direct effect on word problems in young children but was indirectly related to word problems through vocabulary and listening comprehension. These results suggest that in young children, VWM resources support language skills which, furthermore, contribute to variation in solving orally presented word problems. The results also showed that visuo-spatial WM had a direct effect on performance in word problems, suggesting that it plays an important role in word problem solving among this age group.

Working memory and mental arithmetic: A case for dual central executive resources

The current study was designed to examine the possible existence of two limited-capacity pools of central executive resources: one each for verbal and visuospatial processing. Ninety-one college students (M age = 19.0, SD = 2.2) were administered a verbal working memory task that involved updating numbers in 2-, 3-, and 4-load conditions. The task was administered in both single task (no-interference condition) and dual-task (verbal interference and visuospatial interference conditions) formats. Findings indicated main effects for both memory load and type of interference, as well as, a load × interference interaction. Verbal interference led to a steeper increase in errors on the primary verbal working memory task; whereas, there was a smaller increase in errors across load in both the non-verbal and no-interference conditions. The effect of verbal interference and the lack of a spatial interference effect on a primary task that utilized verbal working memory resources, suggests that the processing of verbal and spatial stimuli in a dual-task paradigm requires separate central executive resources.

Diagnosing and alleviating the impact of performance pressure on mathematical problem solving

High-pressure academic testing situations can lead people to perform below their actual ability levels by co-opting working memory (WM) resources needed for the task at hand (Beilock, 2008). In the current work we examine how performance pressure impacts WM and design an intervention to alleviate pressure's negative impact. Specifically, we explore the hypothesis that high-pressure situations trigger distracting thoughts and worries that rely heavily on verbal WM. Individuals performed verbally based and spatially based mathematics problems in a low-pressure or high-pressure testing situation. Results demonstrated that performance on problems that rely heavily on verbal WM resources was less accurate under high-pressure than under low-pressure tests. Performance on spatially based problems that do not rely heavily on verbal WM was not affected by pressure. Moreover, the more people reported worrying during test performance, the worse they performed on the verbally based (but not spatially based) maths problems. Asking some individuals to focus on the problem steps by talking aloud helped to keep pressure-induced worries at bay and eliminated pressure's negative impact on performance.

Dual Task Demands On Encoding And Retrieval Processes: Evidence From Healthy Adult Ageing

Previous studies of dual-task performance have demonstrated that encoding and retrieval processes are differentially affected by the simultaneous performance of a secondary task. Whilst dual task demands during encoding have a detrimental effect on memory performance, dual task demands during retrieval have a detrimental effect on secondary task performance. However, dual task effects on memory during encoding appear unaffected by age, while effects at retrieval on secondary task performance are age sensitive. Most previous studies have focused on free recall or cued recall of word lists. In the current study, encoding and retrieval were examined in younger and older healthy adults performing a task typically thought to load verbal working memory, namely immediate serial ordered digit recall together with a response time (RT) task. In Experiment 1, the demands of a secondary RT task were varied as a function of response-to-stimulus interval, while in Experiment 2 the predictability of the stimulus location was manipulated. In both age groups, dual task during encoding, but not at retrieval, produced significant interference in memory performance and unlike most previous studies the impact at encoding was greater for the older group. In contrast, significantly slower RTs were demonstrated under dual task conditions during encoding and retrieval. Older adults produced significantly slower RTs than younger adults only for dual task at retrieval. Older people were more sensitive to time pressure in responding under dual task conditions, but neither group was sensitive to predictability of stimulus location. Results are consistent with the concept of a cognitive resource that supports dual task performance, and that is sensitive to the effects of age on memory encoding of items that rely heavily on the operation of verbal working memory resources. The age sensitivity to dual task only became apparent when effects at encoding and at retrieval were considered separately.

The nature of working memory in linguistic, arithmetic and spatial integration processes

This paper reports the results of four dual-task experiments that were designed to determine the extent of domain-specificity of the verbal working memory resources used in linguistic integrations. To address this question, syntactic complexity was crossed in a 2 × 2 design with the complexity of a secondary task, which involved either (1) arithmetic integration processes and therefore relied on the use of verbal working memory, or (2) spatial integration processes. Experiments 1 and 2 crossed syntactic complexity and arithmetic complexity, and each revealed two main effects and a super-additive interaction during the critical region of the linguistic materials. Experiments 3 and 4 crossed syntactic complexity and the complexity of a spatial integration task, which does not rely on verbal working memory resources. Similar to Experiments 1 and 2, there were two main effects, but in contrast to Experiments 1 and 2, no interaction was observed in either experiment. The results of the four experiments show that linguistic processing interacts on-line with tasks that involve arithmetic but not spatial integration processes, suggesting that linguistic processing and other verbal working memory tasks that involve similar integration processes rely on a shared pool of working memory resources.

Verbal working memory is involved in associative word learning unless visual codes are available

Baddeley, Gathercole, and Papagno (1998) proposed a model of associative word learning in which the phonological loop, as defined in Baddeley’s working memory model, is primarily a language learning device, rather than a mechanism for the memorization of familiar words. Using a dual-task paradigm, Papagno, Valentine, and Baddeley (1991) found that articulatory suppression, loading verbal working memory, had an effect on the memorizing of word–nonword pairs, but not on the memorizing of word–concrete word pairs. The present work explored the potential for visual codes in unfamiliar word learning. In a first experiment, we replicated the results of Papagno et al. for both nonwords and highly imageable nouns. In addition, we found that articulatory suppression disrupted the memorizing of word–abstract word pairs, suggesting that phonological involvement may be triggered by the absence of visual representations for the abstract words. Experiment 2 showed that an artificially induced association between a nonword and a nonnameable visual image was sufficient to compensate for diminished verbal working memory resources due to articulatory suppression. In a third experiment, we demonstrated that our results generalize to other types of abstract words (i.e., function words), auditory stimulus presentation, and to word learning in children.

The separability of working memory resources for spatial thinking and language processing: An individual differences approach.

The current study demonstrates the separability of spatial and verbal working memory resources among college students. In Experiment 1, we developed a spatial span task that taxes both the processing and storage components of spatial working memory. This measure correlates with spatial ability (spatial visualization) measures, but not with verbal ability measures. In contrast, the reading span test, a common test of verbal working memory, correlates with verbal ability measures, but not with spatial ability measures. Experiment 2, which uses an interference paradigm to cross the processing and storage demands of span tasks, replicates this dissociation and further demonstrates that both the processing and storage components of working memory tasks are important for predicting performance on spatial thinking and language processing tasks.